RESTORATION OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN THE KRKONOŠE NATIONAL PARK, CZECH REPUBLIC

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1 OPERA CORCONTICA 40: , 2003 RESTORATION OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN THE KRKONOŠE NATIONAL PARK, CZECH REPUBLIC Obnova lesních ekosystémů v Krkonošském národním parku, Česká republika IGINO M. EMMER, J. SEVINK, JOSEF FANTA Section of Physical Geography and Soil Science, The Netherlands Centre for Geo Ecological Research (ICG), University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166, 1018 WV Amsterdam, The Netherlands Phone: +31 (0) , Fax: +31 (0) , J.Sevink@frw.uva.nl Funded by the Face Foundation (the Netherlands), the Czech Ministry of Environment, the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Amsterdam. This report focuses on the restoration of the seriously degraded forest ecosystems in the Krkonoše National Park (Czech Republic). It is largely based on the research programmes executed during the period by the University of Amsterdam, which was funded by the Face Foundation, the Czech Ministry of Environment, the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Amsterdam. Předložená souhrnná zpráva pojednává o obnově silně degradovaných lesních ekosystémů v Krkonošském národním parku (Česká republika). Vychází především z výsledků vý zkumných projektů uskutečněných v letech pracovníky Univerzity v Amsterdamu, s finanční podporou nadace Face, Ministerstva životního prostředí ČR, nizozemského Ministerstva zemědělství, pěstování přírody a rybářství a Univerzity v Amsterdamu. Keywords: Klíčová slova: forest ecosystems, restoration, soil, management, Giant Mts. lesní ekosystémy, obnova, zalesňování, půda, řízení, Krkonoše 1 SCOPE AND AIM OF THE PROJECT In conjunction with the Face KRNAP reforestation project in the Krkonoše National Park (KRNAP), a programme was set up to provide scientific backup for the park management. This programme ran during the period and was funded by the Face Foundation, the Czech Ministry of Environment, the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Amsterdam. Broadly speaking, the programme was guided by the four key questions listed below: 1. What are the environmental conditions at the onset of the reforestation project? 2. What kind of knowledge and information does the Krkonoše National Park for a sound implementation of the Face reforestation schemes require? 3. What kind of knowledge and information can be provided by the University of Amsterdam to support the Krkonoše National Park? 4. How should the acquired knowledge be implemented in the reforestation and conservation management of the Krkonoše National Park? 105

2 This report describes the historical and regional setting of the environmental problems in the project area (Chapters 2 and 3, respectively) and the attempts to cope with these problems at the operational level (Chapter 4) and in research (Chapter 5). Subsequently, the results of the programme have been summarised (Chapter 6), related achievements of the programme described (Chapter 7) and suggestions made for implementation of the results in the management of the Krkonoše National Park (Chapter 8). An extensive list of publications is provided in Chapter 9. The Krkonoše Mts. (51 N 15 E) are part of the Sudetes, with altitudes ranging between about 400 and 1600 m a.s.l. The mountains are situated inside the Black Triangle, which covers the area along the joint borders of former Eastern Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. The Giant Mts. were declared a National Park in 1959 (Polish side) and 1963 (Czech side). In 1992, the entire mountain range became a Unesco Biosphere Reserve. For more information see Flousek 1994, Sýkora 1983 and partial reports of this project listed in Chapter 9. Germany Poland Krkonoše National Park Prague Czech Republic Austria Slovak Rep. Fig Location of the Krkonoše Mts. in the Czech Republic Obr Poloha Krkonoš v České republice 2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 2.1 The Black Triangle The core area of Central Europe is a chain of mountain ranges with elevations between 400 1,600 m a.s.l. Acid crystalline and metamorphic bedrock gives rise to acidic and nutrientpoor soils. Forests in this area have been most severely affected by industrial pollutants emanating from industrial agglomerations in adjacent lowlands along the CzechGermanPolish borders, recently known as the Black Triangle. In the 1980s, the power plants in the area emitted some 3.5 million tonnes SO 2 yr 1. In the Czech part of the area, acid deposition achieved values of 120 tonnes of SO 2 and 42 tonnes of NO X km 2 yr 1 (KUBÍKOVÁ 1991). Air pollution, soil degradation and the accompanying phenomena (especially insect infestations) killed some 80,000 ha of montane forest in the Sudete mountain ranges, leaving extensive areas of chemically degraded soils covered by grassy vegetation. Not only forests, but also entire landscapes have been degraded and disturbed. 106

3 Photo 2.1. A heavily declined spruce forest with numerous dead trees near Kamenec Krkonoše National Park Foto 2.1. Těžce zasažený smrkový porost s četnými odumřelými stromy na lokalitě Kamenec Krkonošský národní park 2.2 Early changes in primeval Central European mountain forests Central European montane vegetation belts are believed to have comprised mainly beech and mixed beechspruce forests before human settlement in the Middle Ages. A reconstruction of the primeval vegetation based on pollen analyses suggests that beech and mixed beechspruce forests covered the major part of the area, while mountain climax spruce forests were limited to a narrow zone just below the timber line at 1,250 to 1,350 m a.s.l. Since the 13 th century, primeval forests in Central Europe have been exploited. Initially, this was for local use (construction, domestic heating, mining and glass furnaces), but since the 15 th century extensive commercial fellings also took place. An example is the production of timber for silver mines in Central Bohemia (Kutná Hora). Logs were generally transported to the early industrial areas by rafting on the larger rivers, including the Elbe River that served as transport way for the Krkonoše and Orlické hory Mountains and their Bohemian hinterland. In many cases, vast loggedover areas were changed into pastures and meadows, or left to natural regeneration (LOKVENC 1978). The beginning of Central European forestry dates from the end of the 17 th and the first decades of the 18 th century. In that period, the need was clearly recognised to replace the disorderly and devastating forest exploitation by systematic forestry planning and management. The efforts to maximise the output from forested land led to the establishment of commercial forestry aiming at highly productive monocultures of fastgrowing tree species. As a consequence, clearcuts were reforested with Norway spruce (Picea abies), of which the timber was used for various purposes. The result was a spectacular decrease throughout Central Europe of the area of broadleaved and mixed forests in all altitudinal vegetation belts. In the Czech Republic, the area covered by Norway spruce stands increased from 10 to 107

4 55 % of the forests, while that of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) decreased from 40 to 5 %. Silver fir (Abies alba) decreased from 20 to 1 % and oak (Quercus sp.) from 20 to 5 % (Forest Management Institute, 1995). The first figures, reflecting the original situation, are based on historical evidence and vegetation reconstructions, the last on recent forest inventories. Central European forestry developed further as a commercial activity aiming at high timber yields and profits. The Giant Mts. form the highest mountain range in Central Europe to the north of the Alps (summit at 1,602 m a.s.l.). It is part of the Sudeten mountain chain along the CzechGermanPolish borders. The medieval destruction of primeval forests mostly affected the central and eastern part of the area, while in the western part intensive forest exploitation started in the beginning of the 18 th century. In the latter area, remnants of the original beech and mixed beechspruce forests still exist. In the Krkonoše National Park (KRNAP), the montane belt today comprises only about 0.6 % beech stands (by definition consisting of more than 50 % beech), about 0.1 % in the supramontane zone. 2.3 Recent changes in forest ecosystems Since the 1950s, when largescale industrialisation programmes started in former Czechoslovakia, Eastern Germany and Poland, emission of pollutants increased virtually without limits and culminated in the 1980s. During that period, some 80,000 ha of forests died off in the area along the CzechGerman Polish borders, referred to as the Black Triangle. In the northern part of the Czech Republic, of all forests about 60 % exhibited a decline in vitality. The proportion of calamity fellings of the total cut indicates to what extent vitality decreased, which between was 61 %, with a maximum of 84 % in In the Giant Mts., 8,000 ha of mountain forest at higher altitudes died off as a result of acid deposition and accompanying phenomena, such as wind and snow break, and insect plagues. In declining stands and on clearcuts, the grasses Calamagrostis villosa and Deschampsia flexuosa became dominant species, reducing species diversity of the herbal layer and eliminating characteristic and rare species. There has been a recurrence in calamities with a periodicity of about 100 years, originating in stands restocked centuries ago after the beforementioned extensive harvesting for local mining and glass industries. The recurrence of large calamities would not cease in the businessasusual scenario, while, in addition, air pollution particularly affects spruce stands, even at a young age. The latter is evidenced by recent dieback of stands 20 years of age due to a combination of drought and high sulphur concentrations in the air (Czech Ministry of Agriculture, 1996). During the last three decades, foresters were preoccupied with salvage management of forest decline, involving the cutting and replanting of forest stands. Lesprojekt, the Czech Forest Management Institute, provided management plans based on quite rigid schemes for cutting and planting of predominantly Norway spruce. In recent years, restoration management has been instituted in recognition of the need for a more naturebased approach to replace the inappropriate traditional silvicultural techniques, based on the silviculture of monospecies spruce stands throughout the middle and higher zones of the mountains. Local managers now are free to take decisions based on the ecosystem approach and local site conditions. 3 RESTORATION OF MOUNTAINOUS FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 3.1 Earlier restoration attempts After 300 years of growing monocultures of commercial coniferous tree species and more than 50 years of severe acid deposition, the present situation in Central European forests must be seen as a longterm and even chronic attrition of ecosystems by both intrinsic and external factors (BENNECKE 1990, FÜHRER 1990). The result is an overall physical and ecological instability of forests, leading to 108

5 extensive casual fellings. Under these circumstances, regular forestry is hardly possible, the sustainability of forests is at stake and forests do not fulfil any function properly. The need for a specific approach to forestry in the affected areas was already obvious in the 1950s, when extensive forest dieback started in the Czech Ore Mountains. But instead, foresters attempted to remedy the situation by applying various technical measures. Liming, drainage, ploughing and/or extensive removal of the topsoil using bulldozers (almost 4,000 ha of clearings in the Czech Ore Mts.; KUBELKA 1992) were broadly applied. Declining stands and dead trees were harvested. The decline resulted in fragmented forests and extensive grassy clearings. These clearings were replanted with varying success mostly again with Norway spruce or with exotic conifers more tolerant to pollution. The proportion of indigenous broadleaved species was negligible. However, none of the measures applied could remedy the situation (cf. JIRGLE 1984, ŠACH 1990). On the contrary, the technical amelioration mostly led to the complete destruction of the last remnants of original ecosystems. The above approach is an example of the failure to understand that forest ecosystems are functional systems of ecological relations between forest organisms and their physical environments. A failure to understand that forest decline is not a technical issue, but an ecological problem, which must and can be solved primarily by applying ecological management methods and measures. 3.2 A new impetus for restoration The awareness of the need for international action to reduce industrial emission in the area dawned in the 1960s. However, the political situation in Central Europe prevented a coordinated approach. In the 1980s, the European Community started to develop environmental programmes to get the alarming situation in the area under control. But not until after the political change in 1989 a favourable situation was created to tackle the problem effectively, primarily as a result of pressure from outside, i.e. the environmental policy of the EU. This was rapidly followed by measures at the national level in the field of environment, nature conservation and forestry. Nowadays, at the end of the 1990s, the air pollution by German and Czech power plants has sharply declined through full implementation of SO 2 filters and abandoning the use of lowquality fuels. Polish power plants are lagging behind though. Nevertheless, the emission of SO 2 in the area has decreased to 25 % of the highest level in the 1980s. This positive achievement and subsequent changes in management policies made it possible to start effective restoration planning. The restoration of degraded and destabilised forests in the Black Triangle cannot be considered in isolation. It forms part of the European environmental and nature protection policy aiming at sustainability of ecosystems and landscapes. It must be emphasised that this restoration can hardly be achieved within the traditional concept of forestry oriented on timber production. This concept must be replaced by an ecologically motivated forest restoration policy based on the environmental conditions and the various functions of the forests in Central European landscapes. Forests form an irreplaceable part of the green space and are an important component of its ecological infrastructure, with a vital function for the quality of nature and environment. It is not the sustainable yield but the existence of selfsustaining forest ecosystems that is the first prerequisite to ensure that forests have various beneficial functions for people, environment, landscape and wildlife. This means that the concept of restoration forestry must be outward looking and be seen as part of a transsectoral vision bringing an evident and specific contribution to regional policy aiming at protection of nature and the environment. 109

6 3.3 Restoration ecology and restoration research Ecologically motivated restoration management needs appropriate scientific information. Hence, research must form an inherent part of the restoration policy. Restoration practice raises specific questions addressing the functioning of ecosystems. Restoration research is ecosystem research par excellence. At the same time, it is research with a clearly applicable mission: the results of investigations on processes in disturbed and recovering forest ecosystems can be immediately applied in restoration planning and management. The modelling of restoration processes and alternative scenario studies by the decision makers will be of the utmost importance in this respect. Also monitoring of elements and processes indicative of ecosystem recuperation must become an indispensable part of restoration research programmes. Monitoring not only checks on the measures taken and the progress (both success and failure) of restoration attempts; it also gives relevant information about very fundamental questions on the functioning of recovering ecosystems. All this information, both fundamental and practical, is necessary to develop restoration management models in support of decision making. 4 RESTORATION OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN KRKONOŠE NATIONAL PARK 4.1 Restoration during the past 2 decades The Krkonoše National Park has been established in Until 1993, the Administration of the National Park had authority over nature protection only, whereas forests and forest management were under authority of the State Forest Service. Since 1993, the Krkonoše National Park has a dual authority, the State Forest Service tasks and responsibilities being transferred to the Krkonoše National Park. The State Forest Service applied standard forest management measures in compliance with the Czechoslovak Forest Law and regulations prescribed by forest management plans. Forests of the National Park were managed as a fully controlled technical system. This for example included rules as clearings up to 5 ha in size (for approved exceptions even larger) to be reforested within 2 years, replanting with Norway spruce as dominant tree species and obligatory removal of dead trees. Forest dieback in the area started in the middle of the 1970s and culminated in the 1980s. Old forests in higher mountain zones (800 m a.s.l. and onwards) were affected first and heaviest by winter fogs, while valley forests also declined in vitality. Dying off stands and stands with decreased vitality were cleared entirely, including surviving and still vital individual trees. As a result of this approach, hundreds of hectares of clearings were formed, covered with grassy vegetation (esp. Calamagrostis villosa and Deschampsia flexuosa). The prevailing plant material used for reforestation of clearings was Norway spruce (Picea abies), often of nonnative origin. To some extent also exotic species such as Picea engelmannii and Pinus contorta were used, in combination with Larix decidua. Though site conditions within clearings varied considerably in relation to local differences in e.g. exposition, soil depth and drainage, these clearings were commonly replanted using only one species and standard planting grids, not taking into account any smallscale variation in site conditions. Due to the harsh climatic conditions (mountain climate) and inappropriate planting techniques, reforestation often failed over large areas and had to be repeated, sometimes several times on the same spot. To avoid soil erosion on mountain slopes, the dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo), which is a native high altitude tree species in the area, was also planted in the forest belt below the timberline. Until the middle of the 1980s, the approach in forest management was fully technical and hardly any ecological criteria were applied. The policy in planting was production oriented and it was only by the second half of the 1980s that some rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) and white birch (Betula sp.) were used for reforestation by sowing seeds or planting saplings together with Norway spruce. The above strategy 110

7 was a result of the shortsighted, environmentally destructive policy of the ancient regime. It promoted energy production by coal and lignite combustion in spite of its ecological consequences and harvesting timber at the cost of nature conservation in the National Park. As a result of this policy, the Krkonoše National Park appeared on the list of the ten most endangered national parks of the world. In 1992, the Face Foundation programme was introduced and in February 1993 management of forests in the national park was transferred from the State Forest Service to the Administration of the National Park. These two steps created a favourable situation for the introduction of a more ecology based forest management (planting broadleaved tree species, conversion of young Norway spruce stands into mixed stands, supporting natural processes and natural regeneration of native species, etc.). However, existing forest management plans, which originated in the previous period and which reflected the earlier policy, often thwarted these initiatives. These plans remained operational until recently and constituted a serious psychological and practical obstacle to the introduction and implementation of ecologybased management methods working with natural processes in forest and nature development. Currently, new forest management plans are being developed by the Krkonoše National Park, which will be operative from 2002 onwards. It is necessary to base these plans on a sound ecological strategy for forest and nature management, aiming at nature conservation and restoration. 4.2 The Face Foundation programme in the Krkonoše National Park Joint implementation Since the agreement on the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, a variety of Joint Implementation projects to mitigate carbon dioxide have been set up. In the early 1990s, the Face Foundation (Forests Absorbing Carbon dioxide Emission) was one of the very few players in this field. It was funded in 1990 on a voluntary basis by the Dutch Electricity Generating Board (Sep) to offset the estimated 75 M tonnes of carbon dioxide emitted during the lifetime of a 600 MW coalfired power plant, by planting about 150,000 hectares of new forest. The criteria and strategy developed by the Face Foundation complied with all the requirements formulated for Joint Implementation at that time. The first Conference of the Parties to the Convention, held in Berlin in 1995, decided that the criteria for JI could best be based on experience with specific projects. Later on these projects were formally termed Activities Implemented Jointly under the pilot phase (AIJ). The Face Foundation reports directly to the Conference of the Parties in respect of three of these registered AIJ pilot projects, which are funded by the Face Foundation, namely reforestation in the Czech Republic, Uganda and Ecuador. Detailed information on the methodology of project identification and implementation, criteria adopted and monitoring is provided by EDROMA and OKONYA (1997), VERWEIJ (1997, 1998a and b) and VERWEIJ and EMMER (1998). After the third conference, in December 1997 in Kyoto, yet another instrument in crossborder mitigation activities has emerged. This is the Clean Development Mechanism. CDM is to operate between industrialised and developing countries, whereas JI is now identified as involving projects among developed countries and countries in transition, such as the Czech Republic. Face projects are executed on the basis of a memorandum of understanding and a letter of intent between the Dutch and the host country s governments (under auspices of the UNFCCC) and between the Face Foundation and the host country s (local) government. The Face Foundation does not buy land or trees, but only invests in the ability of the forest to sequester carbon dioxide. The Face Foundation is contractually entitled to sell its share the carbon dioxide sequestered as well as the capacity of carbon dioxide sequestration to third parties. Face contracts run for 99 years. The forest owner must guarantee to maintain the forest s capacity to sequester carbon dioxide during this period. Therefore, the Face Foundation selects areas where maintaining the natural forests is in the interest of the landowner and the local community while the landowner has insufficient funds to undertake reforestation. 111

8 4.2.2 The KRNAP Face programme In 1991, the Face Foundation showed its interest to contribute to funding of forest restoration in the Krkonoše National Park. Negotiations followed between the Face Foundation and Czech participating bodies, involving the Ministry of Environment, the Administration of the National Park, the Ministry of Agriculture, the State Forest Service and the Forest Enterprises active on the territory of the National Park (Horní Maršov, Vrchlabí, Harrachov). Based on the new Landscape Protection and Nature Conservation Act 141/1991, the Administration of the National Park acquired the responsibility for forest management on the territory of the National Park in Herewith, the Czech Ministry of Environment and the Administration of the National Park remained the only partners to negotiate with the Face Foundation. The cooperation between the Face Foundation and the Czech counterpart started in 1992, based on the earlier achieved agreement valid for three years and the first plan of operations for At the beginning of this cooperation in 1992, the environmental situation in the National Park was roughly as follows: Some 7,000 ha of forests at higher altitude had died off or were heavily affected by acid deposition and accompanying phenomena and they had been mostly cleared; Some 5,000 ha of the above area had been reforested with about 90 % Norway spruce according to standards operative at that time; Most clearings and soils of affected old forests at high altitude were covered with grassy vegetation (mainly Calamagrostis villosa and Deschampsia flexuosa); The process of forest deterioration and dying off continued due to high acid deposition, wind blow and snow break, and bark beetle infestation; Forests at higher altitude were fully destabilised; Forests at lower altitude were in poor condition due to longlasting delay in maintenance (thinnings, regeneration fellings, etc.). The participation of the Face Foundation in the restoration of the forests in the National Park has been based on the following conditions: Additionality: The Ministry of Environment and the Administration of the National Park will cover the basic costs of restoration of the forests. The contribution of the Face Foundation will be additional, to cover activities, which under ongoing conditions and without this contribution, would not be carried out by the Czech counterpart (e.g. production of planting stock and reforestation with broad leaved species; conversion of young plantings of Norway spruce, etc.); Ecological criteria: All restoration activities must be ecologically sound to restore the ecological potential of nature and forests of the National Park; Genetic criteria: All planting stock must be explicitly produced from autochthonous seed sources; Reasonable gamekeeping and hunting regime: To reduce damage to newly planted forests, the deer population in the area must be reduced to a level enabling to grow plants of native broadleaved species and European fir and their natural regeneration without specific and costly protection measures. The Face Foundation declared to contribute to the establishment of some 1,000 ha of new forest per year. All reforestation activities will be based on operation plans negotiated 3yearly. The Face Foundation also supports research to reveal consistent scientific information necessary to support reforestation activities in the National Park. 112

9 5 RESTORATION RESEARCH IN THE KRKONOŠE NATIONAL PARK 5.1 Research of Czech institutions in the area Science has a long tradition in the area, reflected in a large number of studies on its flora, fauna and geology (see e.g. the parks periodical Opera Corcontica, since 1964). Forest decline, obvious in the area since the 1970s, also attracted considerable attention by scientists, leading to various studies focusing on both general and specific phenomena connected with forest decline. In the proceedings of the 1996 Conference on Monitoring, research and management of ecosystems in the Krkonoše National Park region, a review of more recent studies on forest decline has been published (VACEK 1996). Various research reports and papers have been published in Czech journals and periodicals (e.g. Práce VÚLHM, LesnictvíForestry). In studies from the 1980s and early 1990s, various aspects of forest decline received attention: defoliation and vitality of stands of Norway spruce and beech (VACEK and JURÁSEK 1985, VACEK and LEPŠ 1987, VACEK 1995); flowering and fructification of forest trees under pollution stress (LOKVENC and ŠTURSA 1985, LOKVENC 1990, VACEK and JURÁSEK 1986); natural regeneration of trees under emission loads (e.g. TESAŘ and TESAŘOVÁ 1996a,b); effects of deforestation and subsequent remedial liming on soil chemistry in clearings and mixed stands (PODRÁZSKÝ 1994, VACEK and PODRÁZSKÝ 1994); the influence of remedial liming on soil chemistry (e.g. PODRÁZSKÝ 1990, PODRÁZSKÝ 1994), etc. The need for large scale reforestation stimulated research on planting stock production, technology of reforestation and monitoring of tree growth on clearings (e.g. JURÁSEK and MARTINCOVÁ 1996, LOKVENC et al. 1992). Research on intraskeletal erosion (PAŠEK 1994, ŠACH and PAŠEK 1996, PODRÁZSKÝ 1996) brought insight into the extreme ecological conditions in skeletal soils ( block fields ) and information on how to recover forest on such soils by reforestation in order to avoid irreversible changes in the mountain landscape. Although measurements of air quality (especially S concentrations) have been carried out at several stations within the National Park since the 1980s, measurements of deposition in support of forest and nature research and management started to be executed much later. In 1994, monitoring of atmospheric deposition of pollutants (S, N, and heavy metals) in forests started, providing insight into the spatial variability of such deposition in the area (HOŠEK and KAUFMAN 1995a,b). Furthermore, retrospective monitoring of forest decline and an assessment of forest vitality using satellite imagery has been carried out (ŠÍMA 1994 a,b,c). Since the beginning of forest decline in the area, various institutions took part in monitoring and research of particular aspects of forest decline, their activities being mostly part of their own working programmes or induced by their scientific interest. A consistent and coordinated research approach and programme however were not developed. In general, research in the 1980s and first half of the 1990s can be characterised as unsystematic, haphazardous and sometimes even of disputable quality. General features of the approach applied were: No demanddriven scientific questions and no consistent research programme No coordination of ongoing activities Hardly any cooperation among researchers Insufficient funding in combination with an ad hoc approach No responsibility accepted for the results produced and for their application Lack of cooperation between research institutions and forest management bodies Character of research: mostly descriptive analyses, no integration and synthesis. 113

10 Most of the above features have their roots in the structure, planning and working methods of research organisations under the former regime. Most research themes, for example, have been put forward by research workers themselves. Some change in this situation could be observed when the Ministry of Environment started funding of research in its sector via its own funding agency. Nevertheless, research planning driven by a sophisticated information policy was lacking. The result was a scattered information field with various, nonsystematic data of very diverse content, depth and scientific value. 5.2 The Face research programme Introduction Forest decline has been monitored in the area since the late 1970s when the first signs of it became evident. In the 1980s, the Czech authorities developed a monitoring programme involving a few Czech research institutions. The intention of the Face project, starting in 1992, was to set up a research programme in a close cooperation between Dutch and Czech research institutions. The costs for this research should not exceed 5 % of the Face contribution for reforestation within the first 3years planning period. The first action undertaken in this direction was bringing together the existing information on afforestation in the Krkonoše National Park, published in a special publication at the beginning of the programme (LOKVENC et al. 1992). The programme was based on the inputoutput analysis and consequent modelling of processes of forest decline. However, the functioning of forest ecosystems under stress and specific ecological processes in particular compartments of forest ecosystems would be left out of consideration (the blackbox approach ). With respect to the seriousness of the problem and the necessity of forest restoration, a complementary research programme was developed oriented towards qualitative aspects of forest decline and functioning of forest ecosystems under emission load. The main aim of the programme was the qualitative analysis of ecological processes in the herbal synusia and in the humus forms of mountain forests under emission load, and the interrelation between these two compartments. It was assumed that processes that take place in these two compartments and their interrelations are essential for understanding of: 1. The change in chemical properties of the forest topsoil resulting in heavy acidification and degradation, and consequent dieback of forest trees; 2. The change in species composition of the herbal synusia, resulting in extensive growth of grasses and their heavy competition with and/or exclusion of natural forest regeneration. The Department (currently Section) of Physical Geography and Soil Science of the University of Amsterdam had extensive experience in both research fields given above, namely research in forest succession and in humus forms and their development. This experience and research methodology had been developed in its research programme concentrated on seminatural ecosystems (forests and substituting communities). The proposed research project was anticipated to take the central position among the ongoing projects carried out in the Krkonoše National Park, and to have an integrative role among research projects aiming at increasing the resistance of existing forests against acid deposition and at forest restoration. This kind of ecosystem compartment analysis had not yet been applied in the area Recommendations for reforestation planning Based on the findings in the first phase of the research programme, the following recommendations for further planning of the reforestation activities were devised: 1 Priority has to be given to reforestation of areas where site deterioration may be irreversible. These sites are found on block fields with intraskeletal erosion. 114

11 2 Reforestation of sites at high altitude infested with Calamagrostis villosa grass should not be given priority. The complex mechanisms in soil development and vegetation succession under acid load call for more detailed scientific research before the success rate of reforestation can be substantiated for these sites. 3 Priority in reforestation should be given to sites with limited or no acidification and those with extensive natural regeneration of tree species. 4 Given the adverse effects of Norway spruce on site conditions at lower and intermediate altitudes, the programme should refrain from planting this species in monocultures. 5 Natural regeneration of indigenous broadleaves such as birch (Betula sp.), Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) and others should be stimulated and facilitated because of their favourable effects on soil conditions, vegetation succession, biodiversity and costs of ecosystem rehabilitation. 6 Reforestation activities on grassinfested sites should focus on Deschampsia flexuosa and Vaccinium myrtillus covers rather than those of Calamagrostis villosa because of the high competitive vigour of the latter. This will exclude large areas at high altitude (particularly the peaty sites and peats) from early reforestation activities. 7 A further reduction of game will be required to allow natural regeneration of indigenous trees to play a significant role in ecosystem rehabilitation. 5.3 Integrated restoration research FaceCME The recommendations listed in the previous section brought about a change in the orientation of the research activities associated with the reforestation programme. Moreover, the Face Foundation required that the goals of the subsequent research should be demanddriven. The Administration of the National Park in 1995 therefore formulated the requirements for further research in a document, which was dispatched among the potential participants of the research programme, also including the University of Amsterdam. Evidently, the aims of the Krkonoše National Park management were to be in compliance with the aims of the Face reforestation projects, i.e. to establish stable forest ecosystems that sequester and store carbon for at least 99 years. In the requirement defined by the Administration of the National Park a series of topics were mentioned. The proposed research by the UvA related to a number of these topics, which were grouped under the headings Inventory studies, Special studies and GIS application Inventory study The aim of the study was to provide empirical knowledge based on a thorough comparative study of the succession of soil and vegetation in the various vegetational zones. As regards the topics defined by the Krkonoše National Park, the research related to: Trends in spontaneous succession, providing empirical knowledge essential for management, especially aiming at controlled natural regeneration; General trends in soil chemistry in relation to succession under various emission regimes, and the effects of past liming. It must be emphasised that parts of the area have been limed in the past, as a result of which current and future successional trends may deviate from those in nonlimed areas. 115

12 Results concern the following: Trends in vegetation succession in the herbal synusia during disturbance of Norway spruce stands; Properties of the successional stages, including biomass production, humus form profile and nutrient status, and plant strategies of herb species in successional phases (spruce stands); The effect of liming on succession (spruce stands); The role of pioneer tree species in the ecosystem, in particular their potential ameliorative effect on soil nutrient status (spruce stands); Patterns in humus form properties and herbal vegetation in seminatural forests; Conclusions regarding trends, mechanisms and patterns of ecological succession Special studies While the inventory study was comparative in nature and provided empirical knowledge on the successional processes, the Special studies aimed at: A fundamental understanding of the soil processes relevant for the successional trends observed, and their quantification using deterministic models; A quantitative assessment of the possibilities for regeneration of the various soils upon reduction of the acid atmospheric deposition or changes in the vegetation, through the application of deterministic models. The research related to: Biological activity of soils, as evidenced by litter decomposition and organic matter dynamics; Changes in soil properties in representative successional and catenary series, related to acid buffering and nutrient cycling, based on assessment of process rates and mathematical modelling of the processes involved; Translation of results into the influences of the soil environment on natural regeneration and possibilities of natural regeneration control. The output of the proposed research by the UvA has been a quantification of process rates concerning acid buffering, organic matter and element dynamics, using mathematical models that were already available. Based on the knowledge thus obtained, a model for site assessment under current and future emission loads can be developed. Site assessment refers to the organic matter and element dynamics in the ecosystems concerned. This model should serve as a tool for the evaluation of current forest management in the area and of alternative management practices GIS application The information available at Krkonoše National Park as of 1995 consisted of: An inventory (by remote sensing) of changes in forest vitality, basically at the level of stands; A site survey at scale 1:10,000 (forest type map); A threedimensional model of the park, allowing for the assessment of slope angle, exposition and other topographical characteristics. 116

13 A combination of the above data and additional data was used to identify ecological zones. This part of the research has been carried out in collaboration with the Czech firm IFER (Institute of Forest Ecosystem Research) and the GIS department of Krkonoše National Park (ČERNÝ et al. 1998). 5.4 Involvement of the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture Funding of reforestation programmes by the Face Foundation is particularly aimed at the forestry activities involved. The Face Foundation also has allocated funds for research to be carried out on behalf of the reforestation programme. The funding, however, has been limited to a certain percentage of the total yearly budget. For the current research programme additional funding was requested from the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture. The subsidy applied for pertained to the costs of the yearly salary of 1 researcher at the University of Amsterdam, appointed to the research project in the Krkonoše National Park. A separate report has been sent to the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture in December 1999 and served to describe the background and the setting of the FaceKRNAP research programme and to acknowledge the use of the subsidy in the year The Face Foundation has covered the salary costs for the researcher in 1995, whereas the University of Amsterdam has covered the costs in SUMMARY OF THE SCIENTIFIC REPORTS 6.1 Introduction With reference to the key questions of the programme (Chapter 1), the issues listed below have been addressed in a number of reports and papers. 1. The environmental conditions at the onset of the KRNAPFace reforestation project, pertaining to soils and forest sites. 2. The relation between forest and site deterioration and environmental factors. 3. Expected future changes in site conditions. 4. The natural development of heavily degraded forest ecosystems and clearcuts. 5. The general approach to restoring montane forest ecosystems. 6.2 Soil conditions and soil changes in the Giant Mts Soil patterns in the Giant Mts. Both geology and altitude to a large extent determine soil type. As a result, in the Giant Mts. 4 major soil groups can be distinguished, viz. brown forest soils (Cambisols), podzols, peat soils (Histosols) and debris soils (Leptosols formerly Rankers and Lithosols), which can be generally found in a catenary relation. 117

14 Tab Grouping of major soil types in the Giant Mts. according to altitudinal zone and ecological series. Soils in forest types with an areal cover of less than 0.5 % and soils associated with streams and rivers have been left out. (EMMER 1996a) Setřídění hlavních půdních typů v Krkonoších podle výškových zón a ekologických řad. Půdy v lesních typech s plošným pokryvem menším než 0,5 % a půdy asociované s vodními toky byly vypuštěny. (EMMER 1996a) Zone Ecological series Y Z N M K S F B D A T G R 9 V V 9 Pd Pd Gr Gr T 8 V Pz Pzn Pz Pz Pz Pz Pzn 7 K Pzn Pz Pz Ha Ha Ha Ha 6 K Zn Z Z Ha Ha Ha Ha Han 5 K Hon Ho Ho Ha Ha Ha Ha Han Legend: Code Description V Debris soils on block fields Pz Podzols K Rankers Pd Podzols, bare, at high altitudes Ha Brown soils, mesotrophic Gr Gleyic peaty/humic soils Ho Brown soils, oligotrophic T Peat soils in highland moor Z Podzolised brown soils Suffix n: stony Code Series Category Areal cover (%) Z Extreme stunted * 15.0 Y " skeletal * 1.8 M Acidic poor 2.3 K " normal 39.6 N " stony 17.6 S Fertile medium fertile 8.4 F " on slopes 1.7 B " normal 1.0 D Enriched by humus clayey 2.4 A " stony 2.0 J " debris 0.2 L Enriched by water floodplains 0.1 V " wet 3.1 P Gleyic acidic 0.3 T Waterlogged poor in nutrients 1.4 G " medium fertile 2.3 R " peaty 0.9 A combination of altitudinal vegetation zones and selected soil parameters is the basis for the forest type (or site) classification. Forest types are the basic units for forest management. Ecological series in the classification are defined based on soil properties controlling site quality and are subdivided in 118

15 various categories. The soil map of the Giant Mts. by Lesprojekt has been derived from the forest type map. A key for the translation is provided in Table 6.1. The mesotrophic Cambisols (Ha) are associated with the relatively fertile and humus enriched ecological series in the lower vegetation zones. The oligotrophic and podzolised Cambisols (Ho and Z) conform to the acidic ecological series in the lowest two vegetation zones. Podzols (P) also belong to the acidic ecological series, but are found at higher altitudes. They also involve more and less fertile types in the 8 th vegetation zone. At higher altitude, Podzols alternate with Leptosols. Peaty soils and peat bogs (blanket bogs) are associated with the waterlogged sites at high altitudes. The Dystric Cambisol (brown forest soil) and Umbric Leptosol (skeletal debris soil) combine some favourable characteristics, i.e. a higher ph and base saturation, and a lower C/N ratio. After including other parameters, viz. rootable volume and soil drainage, a provisional pedoecological classification is possible (Table 6.2). Tab Pedoecological classification of major soil groups in the Giant Mts. Pedoekologická klasifikace hlavních půdních skupin v Krkonoších Soil type Soil chemistry Rooting volume Drainage Cambisols +/- + + Umbric Leptosols (rankers) +/- +/- + Podzolic soils Lithic Leptosols Histosols Humaninduced soil changes in the Giant Mts. For many decades soils have undergone unnatural changes due to the input of three groups of air borne pollutants, viz. heavy metals, alkaline particles and acid or acidifying substances. The occurrence of changes due to the former two has been limited to areas near local sources, i.e. industries and liming practice. Acid deposition has had a greater areal dispersion and has affected a larger area. Acidification of soils due to acid rain therefore applies to the entire area of the Giant Mts. Moreover, soils may be affected by other human activities, such as treelogging and monospecies silviculture giving rise to borealisation. Soil changes due to borealisation Borealisation is defined as enhanced soil acidification and litter accumulation, retarded nutrient cycling and changed forest climate in planted coniferous forest ecosystems. An additional effect of borealisation is a major decline in biodiversity of the stands. It may not be easy to quantify the longterm effects of borealisation on soil properties, because historical data covering the past two or three centuries are lacking. However, based on a comparative study of Norway spruce and European beech stands in the Krkonoše National Park, conclusions can be drawn as to the effects of spruce on ecosystem properties, compared to closetonature stands. Seven forest communities were found on the basis of the botanical inventory of 150 relevées, ranging from speciesrich spruce stands to speciesrich beech stands, with intermediate speciespoorer spruce and beech stands (Table 6.3). 119

16 Tab Community grouping according to TWINSPAN ordination of 150 relevées in the Krkono še National Park (EMMER et al. 1998a/b) Vegetační typy smrkových a bukových porostů podle TWINSPAN ordinace 150 vegetačních snímků v Krkonošském národním parku (EMMER et al. 1998a/b) Group Stand type Major undergrowth species 1 Species-rich spruce A. filix-femina, Oxalis acetosela, Senecio nemorensis ssp. fuchsii, Luzula luzuloides 2 Spruce A dense vegetation of C. villosa, D. flexuosa and Vaccinium myrtillus 3 Species-poor dense Scarce C. villosa spruce 4 Species-poor beech A dense vegetation of C. villosa, D. flexuosa and V. myrtillus 5 Species-poor beech V. myrtillus, juvenile Sorbus aucuparia and F. sylvatica 6 Species-rich beech Polygonatum verticilatum and Gymnocarpium dryopteris 7 Species-rich beech Galium odoratum or Paris quadrifolia without C. villosa, D. flexuosa and V. myrtillus Photo 6.1. Dense spruce forest with poor species diversity and strongly acidified soils Krkonoše National Park Foto 6.1. Hustý smrkový porost s minimální druhovou diverzitou na silně okyselené půdě Krkonošský národní park Speciesrelated indicators used in this study to evidence borealisation were particularly the diversity indices and Ellenberg s R (acidity) and N (nitrogen) values. On average, the spruce stands exhibited a lower species diversity, and had less nitrogen indicators (lower N value) and more acidity indicators (lower R value) than beech stands. On average, spruce stands had thicker organic horizons, with a lower ph than beech stands. The major humus form in beech stands was a Moder (88 %). In spruce stands this was 68 %, while Mor humus forms were also well presented (32 %). 120

17 Regarding chemical differences between soils under spruce and beech, as an indicator for the effect of borealisation on soil properties, only little published information was found. Results show that under beech the phkcl in the A and B horizons is about 0.25 unit higher than under spruce, while the base saturation is around 10 % higher. Soil changes due to acid deposition Results of soil chemical analyses in the Giant Mts. since the late 1950s were available from Lesprojekt (Hradec Králové). These data comprise repeated measurements of amongst others ph, CEC and base saturation in genetic horizons of forest soils. Sample periods were , 1971, 1981, 1986, The changes in ph and base saturation since the late 1950s according to the Lesprojekt archive are shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. Figure 6.1 shows the change in ph over time for the topsoil (A horizon), while Figure 6.2 shows the change of the base saturation with depth for sampling periods 1956/61 and In the period, the values for the ph varied considerably among the soils sampled. A strong decrease in the soil ph has occurred during the 1960s, followed by a period of stabilisation or small decline during the 1970s and later on. Moreover, the range of ph values measured decreased significantly, which indicates the converging effect of heavy acid deposition on soil chemical properties in the area. For comparison, the deposition regime is shown in Figure 6.3. The base saturation also shows remarkable changes over the time period considered (Figure 6.2). In the topsoil as well as the subsoil vary strongly, with a maximum just over 50 %. In 1991 only values below 20 % are found in both top and subsoil. The pattern observed (see Emmer, Wessel et al and 2000) points at an ongoing loss of adsorbed base cations, starting in the topsoil and progressing into the subsoil. As inferred from the results of the beechspruce comparison and from the literature, the effect of borealisation on soil ph can be estimated at ph units. For the base saturation the literature shows a difference of up to 10 %. These are significant but relatively small changes in comparison with the effect of acid rain. Results of field measurements and simulations (see Section 6.4) indicate that acid rain caused more than 1 unit decrease in ph, down to values below 3, and a reduction of the base saturation of 5 times or more over the period The major conclusion from the comparative study of successional stages (SEVINK et al. 1999) is that of the 4 factors involved (atmospheric deposition, drainage, geology, climate), atmospheric input explains most of the variability in soil chemical properties observed at site level, with drainage as a second but distinctly less important factor. This conclusion regarding the role of acid atmospheric input is in line with a number of other observations. Firstly, from the forestry records it is known that forest decline started and has been most prominent in the heavily polluted western and eastern parts of the Krkonoše National Park. This was in particular in condensation zones and where soils have a very limited capacity to buffer the atmospheric input of acid. The latter pertains to soils on block fields and other shallow coarse textured soils, and peat soils. Analysis of the sequential soil data from the 1950s onwards (see above) showed that all soils on acid to intermediate rocks in the Giant Mts. exhibit the same trend in soil acidification. However, rates are distinctly different, the fastest acidification and declining base saturation being observed at sites with higher atmospheric deposition and in soils with lower acid neutralising capacity (coarse textured, shallow soils). In the most recent soil data, a convergence in soil reaction and base saturation can be observed towards very low ph values and low base saturation in the ectorganic and upper mineral horizons. This results from a relatively high input of acids that cannot be buffered by (slow) mineral weathering or other, faster acid neutralising processes such as dissolution of sesquioxides and clay minerals. 121

18 6 ph-h 2 O Top soil Years Fig Changes in the ph of forest soils in the Giant Mts. during the period (EMMER, WESSEL et al. 1999/2000) Obr Změna ph lesních půd v Krkonoších v období (EMMER, WESSEL et al. 1999/ 2000) Base saturation (%) Depth (cm) Fig Changes in the base saturation of forest soils in the Giant Mts. during the period (EMMER, WESSEL et al. 1999/2000) Obr Změna nasycení lesních půd bázemi v Krkonoších v období (EMMER, WESSEL et al. 1999/2000) 122

19 That drainage plays a role is understandable. Poorly drained sites at footslopes and valley bottoms may receive water from overlying slopes, which has been in contact with the regolith for a considerable length of time. Such lithocline water may contain relatively high amounts of base elements freed due to weathering of the regolith. At first sight it seems somewhat surprising that parent material plays a very subordinate role, given the considerable differences in both mineralogical and chemical composition of the major parent materials. However, here too it can be well explained by the limited importance of mineral weathering relative to the atmospheric input of acids in the soils concerned. Soil changes due to liming The poorly recorded and seemingly erratic liming forms a complication for investigations at a regional scale, since liming cannot be identified through field study of soils, but only shows up in soil chemical data and even then can only be identified when mineral Ca stocks clearly exceed natural values. Nonetheless, based on the comparative study, the impact of liming on soil properties seems to be limited to the ectorganic layer and largely concerns the reaction (ph) and base saturation of this layer, while the mineral soil is hardly affected, if at all. Under the prevailing conditions, amounts applied evidently are too small to have a larger impact on the soil properties. In recent studies by others (see Emmer 1996a, and references therein) a comparison was made between the shortterm effects of experimental liming with gravelly dolomitic limestone and finely ground limestone of the same origin. It was concluded that at lower doses the changes in the chemistry of the organic layers could not be differentiated from the variation due to other factors (for instance clear cutting). Although experimental liming with suppletions similar to those occurring in past liming practice did not reveal convincing soil changes, tree growth may still be significantly affected by the various liming methods involved. This suggests that one should be very reserved in drawing conclusions from soil analysis as to the ecological implications of soil changes. This pertains to circumstances in which biota undergo changes, while soil parameters seem to be constant, as well as those in which soil changes are evident but other ecosystem compartments remain seemingly unaltered. 6.3 Site conditions in the Giant Mts Quality of information As a derived map, the soil map reflects a complex of site conditions used in forest type mapping. These conditions are notably drainage, soil depth, fertility, organic matter content and acidity. The forest type map is therefore a better source of such relatively detailed information. The accuracy of the soil map has been checked in the field (EMMER et al. 1997). In general, the map accurately reflects the soil mosaic, but it fails in particular cases. It is conspicuous that a number of misclassifications involve overratings of soil conditions: Near Medvědí Koleno podzolised brown soils have been mapped were Podzols are found; mesotrophic brown soils have been mapped instead of podzolised brown soils; stony slopes with Histosols and Leptosols have been classified as young Podzols. Near Fučíkovy boudy very shallow soils on hard rock have been classified as Podzols, instead of stony Podzols or Rankers. The reason for misclassification may be twofold: Firstly, the forest type map may contain unreliable information. Secondly, the translation key for the soil map is inadequate for certain soil types, as there may be a less close relation between soil types and soil properties included in the forest typology. Boundaries between soil types seemed to be mapped accurately, except for those between peat soils (T) and gleyed soils or peaty gleyed podzols (G and Gr). These boundaries could not be recognised in the field. 123

20 Conclusions about the reliability and usefulness of the available geographical information are: a. The forest type map and the soil map provide information on spatial patterns of forest site factors, which is very well applicable in forest site classification. These maps give information about drainage, rootable depth, and the type of soils found at different sites. An important limitation of both maps is that only relatively largescale patterns are indicated, i.e. above a scale of 1:10,000. Observed smaller scale patterns, which are relevant with regard to forest vitality, cannot be derived from the maps. b. The map of forest altitudinal vegetation zones describes the distribution of forest types in relation to temperature. Together with the forestry map, this map may be used to describe temperature patterns in the area. c. Monitoring data on acid deposition is scarce. Therefore, the appropriateness of data for describing spatial patterns of acid deposition is low. A rough indication for deposition patterns can be derived from a) the geomorphological map/digital terrain model which gives insight into the distribution of wet deposition under influence of anemoorographic systems, in combination with b) the forestry map, which describes the presentday distribution of forest types. Available monitoring data should be elaborated more thoroughly. d. Satellite image interpretations provide the most elaborated information about spatial patterns in forest vitality. However, their reliability is not exactly known. Of different authors interpretations are available, showing differences in patterns and gradations Site classification for the Krkonoše National Park Within the area, large differences in forest vitality occur. An appropriate forest site classification should be able to explain these observed differences and to predict forest vitality for specific stands, provided that information is available on the various factors determining forest site conditions. An adequate forest site classification might be used for the following aims: 1. Explanation of observed forest vitality or forest decline at different sites in the Giant Mts., and predictions regarding impacts of atmospheric deposition on forest vitality. 2. Identification of problem areas. This is especially important for inventories on the extent and location of such areas. 3. Insight in large scale and smallscale patterns of abiotic conditions, necessary for the identification and implementation of an adequate reforestation strategy and management. Forest site factors that are expected to play an important role in determining forest vitality in the Giant Mts. include temperature, drainage, rootable depth, acid buffering capacity and acid deposition. Individual site factors might be evaluated in qualitative terms and subsequently be combined into a qualitative overall evaluation of forest site quality. Outcomes of such a procedure could be checked against data on measured parameters for forest vitality, such as net biomass production or stand vitality. The procedure described is that for qualitative or semi-quantitative land evaluation (FAO, 1976). Based on the information described in the preceding sections, it is not possible to construct a quantitative forest site classification. The main reasons are that it is not possible to rate values for individual factors other than in a subjective, qualitative way, nor to quantify the contribution of individual factors to overall site quality. Moreover, systematic data on parameters for forest vitality that can be used to check the results of an evaluation are not available. Therefore, only an attempt has been made to evaluate individual site factors and even such evaluation is open for improvement based on expert judgements. Results could be applied in a GIS system, using overlay techniques and checking the results versus patterns in forest vitality, once available. 124