MUSICOLOGICA OLOMUCENSIA 22

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1 ACTA UNIVERSITATIS PALACKIANAE OLOMUCENSIS FACULTAS PHILOSOPHICA PHILOSOPHICA AESTHETICA MUSICOLOGICA OLOMUCENSIA 22 Universitas Palackiana Olomucensis 2015

2 Musicologica Olomucensia Editor-in-chief: Lenka Křupková Editorial Board: Michael Beckerman New York University, NY; Mikuláš Bek Masaryk University, Brno; Roman Dykast Academy of Performing Arts, Prague; Jarmila Gabrielová Charles University, Prague; Lubomír Chalupka Komenský University, Bratislava; Magdalena Dziadek Jagiellonian University in Kraków; Jan Vičar Palacký University, Olomouc Executive editor of Volume 22 (December 2015): Jan Blüml Zpracování a vydání publikace bylo umožněno díky finanční podpoře udělené roku 2015 Ministerstvem školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy ČR v rámci Institucionálního rozvojového plánu, programu V. Excelence ve vzdělávání, Filozofické fakultě Univerzity Palackého v Olomouci: Podpora časopisů vydávaných na FF UP. Processing and publication of this issue was made possible through the financial support granted in 2015 by Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic within the Institutional development plan, program V. Excellence in Education, to Faculty of Arts, Palacký University in Olomouc: Support of the journals published on FF UP. The scholarly journal Musicologica Olomucensia has been published twice a year (in June and December) since 2010 and follows up on the Palacký University proceedings Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis Musicologica Olomucensia (founded in 1993) and Kritické edice hudebních památek [Critical Editions of Musical Documents] (founded in 1996). Journal Musicologica Olomucensia can be found on EBSCOhost databases. The present volume was submitted to print on November 30, Předáno do tisku 30. listopadu musicologicaolomucensia@upol.cz ISSN Reg. no. MK ČR E 19473

3 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 CONTENTS Mike FORD: Processes of spectralization: From Josquin s Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales to Haas s Tria ex Uno...7 Mirjam FRANK: The Lullaby of Ilse Weber: Terezín as a Mirror Image...25 Alexandra GRABARCHUK: Bridging Deep Chasms: The Soviet Third Direction in Aleksei Rybnikov s Rock Opera The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta...39 David KOZEL: A Musical Analysis of Mythical Thought in the Work of Claude Lévi-Strauss...61 Manfred NOVAK: Providing for the Active Participation of the Entire Assembly : Petr Eben s Liturgical Music with Congregational Participation...79 Jana SPÁČILOVÁ: Reflection on Musical Contacts of Olomouc Bishops from the 18 th Century in the Kroměříž Music Collection...97 Martina STRATILKOVÁ: Hans Mersmann and the Analysis of the New Music Václav Metoděj UHLÍŘ: Works for Organ by Josef Förster Jr. and Josef Bohuslav Foerster in the Context of the Transformation of the Organ Sound Ideal in Bohemia in the Second Half of the 19 th Century

4 Anastasia WAKENGUT: A Discourse on Belarusian Music and its Role in the Construction of Identities in Belarus Contributors

5 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 OBSAH Mike FORD: Procesy spektralizace: od Josquinovy skladby Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales k dílu Tria ex uno Georga Friedricha Haase...7 Mirjam FRANK: Ukolébavka Ilse Weber: Terezín jako obraz v zrcadle...25 Alexandra GRABARCHUK: Překlenutí hlubokých propastí: Sovětský Třetí proud v opeře Zvezda i smert Khoakina Mur ety skladatele Alexeje Rybnikova...39 David KOZEL: Hudební analýza mytologického myšlení v díle Clauda Lévi-Strausse...61 Manfred NOVAK: Určeno pro aktivní spoluúčast celého shromáždění : liturgická hudba skladatele Petra Ebena s účastí kongregace...79 Jana SPÁČILOVÁ: Odraz hudebních kontaktů olomouckých biskupů 18. století v kroměřížské hudební sbírce...97 Martina STRATILKOVÁ: Hans Mersmann a analýza nové hudby Václav Metoděj UHLÍŘ: Varhanní tvorba Josefa Förstera mladšího a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera v kontextu přeměny zvukového ideálu varhan v Čechách v druhé polovině 19. století

6 Anastasia WAKENGUT: Hudba a její role v procesu tvorby identit v Bělorusku Autoři

7 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 Processes of spectralization: From Josquin s Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales to Haas s Tria ex Uno Mike Ford What some scholars have called the school of spectral music emerged early in the 1970 s, with composers making sound itself their object of study and their primary source of material. 1 Where many earlier composers have ignored or neglected the expressive capabilities of timbre, composers of spectral music have made it the primary element in their works, using the overtone series as a point of reference. 2 Robert Hasegawa maintains that the essential characteristic of spectralism is the dissection of sounds into collections of partials or overtones as a major compositional and conceptual device. Spectral composers use the acoustical fingerprints of sounds their spectra as basic musical material. 3 My research points out an aspect of spectral music that has not been fully explored yet: the use of musical borrowing the application of spectral techniques to existing material. In this paper, I discuss the spectral treatment of existing music in Georg Friedrich Haas s Tria ex Uno, demonstrating the distinctive spectral paradigms and techniques that Haas has used to transform the second Agnus Dei from Josquin Desprez s Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales into Tria ex Uno. These techniques include the emphasis on timbre; a nonlinear view of musical time; the use of the harmonic spectrum, stretched and compressed versions of that spectrum, and polyspectrality, i.e. the simultaneous use of more two or more spectra; and organizing the music through processes instead of progressions. The borrowing techniques and treatment of existing music used in Tria ex Uno are found in many other quotational works by composers of spectral music, and my aim is thus to expand the discourse on musical borrowing to include spectralization. 1 Joshua Fineberg, Spectral Music, Contemporary Music Review 19, No. 2 (2000): 3. 2 François Rose, Introduction to the Pitch Organization of French Spectral Music, Perspectives of New Music 34, No. 2 (1996): 7. 3 Robert Hasegawa, Gérard Grisey and the Nature of Harmony, Music Analysis 28, No. 2 3 (2009):

8 Austrian composer Georg Friedrich Haas former lecturer at Hochschule für Musik, Basel, Switzerland and currently professor of composition at Columbia University wrote Tria ex Uno in The work is in three parts and is scored for sextet comprising flute, clarinet, piano, percussion, violin, and cello (the winds double on alto fl ute and bass clarinet, respectively). Haas extensively borrows material from the second Agnus Dei from Josquin Desprez s Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales, which was published by Ottaviano Petrucci half a millennium earlier in (Ex. 1). Ex. 1: Agnus Dei II from Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales 5 Julian Anderson argues that many composers of spectral music struggle to fi nd ways to write melodies or counterpoint. 6 By borrowing material from the Agnus Dei, Haas avoids this struggle by extracting melodic and contrapuntal fragments from a work that is explicitly contrapuntal. The Agnus Dei is a mensuration canon in three parts: the three voices simultaneously sing the same melody, but in three different mensurations. Haas presents the canon, unchanged, in Tria ex Uno I (Ex. 2). Ex. 2: Original mensuration canon, Tria ex Uno I, mm Patrick Macey, et al., Josquin des Prez, in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online (Oxford University Press), accessed June 10, 2015, edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/14497pg Ex. 1 is taken from Heinrich Glarean, Dodecachordon (Basel: Heinrich Petri, 1547), Julian Anderson, A Provisional History of Spectral Music, Contemporary Music Review 19, No. 2 (2000):

9 Musical Borrowing J. Peter Burkholder has argued that three types of questions need to be addressed when examining a work that employs musical borrowing: the analytical, the historical, and the interpretive. 7 Analytical questions inquire into the origin of the material and the way it has been used in the new work. While Haas makes the provenance of the material clear in the score, the answer to the second question, how it is used, or how it has been altered, is not as clear and therefore necessitates a thorough investigation, which will occupy a considerable portion of this paper. The second of Burkholder s question types, the historical, reflects upon about the history and tradition of the specific musical practices at play in Haas s work. Joseph Straus maintains that borrowing from predecessors seems to be almost as old as Western music itself, 8 but that the twentieth century saw an unusually strong interest in this technique, partially as a result of the historical (and therefore stylistic) distance between composers and their source material. Straus notes that Webern highlights certain motives in his recomposition of the Ricercare from Bach s The Musical Offering, but maintains the original pitches and rhythms; while Schoenberg and Stravinsky add material to existing music in the then-current style. 9 Richard Beaudoin and Joseph Moore distinguish between these two borrowing approaches: they label Webern s method transcription, and Schoenberg s and Stravinsky s, transdialection. 10 Elsewhere, Beaudoin defi nes transdialections as loose transcriptions that creatively reexpress the musical content of an original work in the distinct musical dialect of the [recomposer]. 11 Haas applies transdialection in many of his works, including In iij. Noct (also 2001) and e fi nisci già (2012). The ways in which Haas treats the Agnus Dei in Tria ex Uno are consistent with many of his other works that employ musical borrowing. Tria ex Uno is unusual in that it borrows from a work that makes use of musical borrowing itself (the Agnus Dei is taken from a cantus firmus mass, based on L homme armé ). Although double borrowing has precedents in literature and philosophy, its application to music is relatively novel. 12 A notable twentieth-century precedent of double borrowing is Luciano Berio s Sinfonia, the third movement of which is modeled on the 7 J. Peter Burkholder, The Uses of Existing Music: Musical Borrowing as a Field, Notes Second Series 50, No. 3 (1994): Joseph Straus, Recompositions by Schoenberg, Stravinsky, and Webern, The Musical Quarterly 72, No. 3 (1986): Ibid., 306, Richard Beaudoin & Joseph Moore, Conceiving Musical Transdialection, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 68, No. 2 (2010): Richard Beaudoin, Musical Borrowing and Cavell s Way, Journal of Music Theory 54, No. 1 (2010): Ibid.,

10 Scherzo from Mahler s Resurrection Symphony, which is based in turn on Mahler s own song, Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt. 13 As Haas does not indicate the reasons behind his choice of existing material, answers to the interpretive questions, Burkholder s third catergory, remain speculative as it is unclear why the Agnus Dei was specifically selected and subjected to spectral treatment. Successful recomposers, according to Beaudoin and Moore, pursue a determinate musical isomorphism, 14 by taking distinct features of the original composition and presenting them in a new dialect, while retaining their expressive functions. The source material therefore has to have qualities that are susceptible to the composer s transdialection. I shall return to the interpretive questions near the end of this paper. * * * * * Haas presents an unaltered version Josquin s Agnus Dei in Tria ex Uno I to familiarize the listener with the material to be subsequently reworked. In Tria ex Uno II, by contrast, Haas presents the Agnus Dei in an alternate instrumentation, highlighting motivic relationships between parts. Tria ex Uno III paraphrases the Agnus Dei and subjects Josquin s material to a variety of spectral techniques. Tria ex Uno II In the second part of Tria ex Uno, the melodic lines of the Agnus Dei are fragmented and passed among the various players in the ensemble; the blocks in Ex. 3 trace the path of the Agnus Dei soprano part (cf. Ex. 2). Webern s recomposition of Bach s Ricercare uses a similar method of fragmentation and reorchestration that remains at the level of transcription. In Tria ex Uno II, each of the six players has at least one fragment of each part of the Agnus Dei. As the lines flow between the different players in the ensemble, the listener s attention is drawn to the unique timbre of each instrument. Composers of spectral music has brought timbre into focus not only by emphasizing different instrumental timbres (similar to Schoenberg s Klangfarbenmelodie), but also by calling attention to the inner workings of sounds themselves. 13 J. Peter Burkholder, Borrowing, Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online (Oxford University Press), accessed September 23, 2015, edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/52918pg13. David Osmond-Smith, Playing on Words: A Guide to Berio s Sinfonia (London: Royal Musical Association: 1989), 40. It is interesting to note that Beaudoin disregards the fact that the movement from Mahler s symphony borrows material from the composer s own song; instead Beaudoin focusses on the technique of adding a multitude of sources to a fundamental source. Beaudoin, Musical Borrowing, Beaudoin & Moore, Conceiving Musical Transdialection,

11 Ex. 3: Reorchestrated mensuration canon, Tria ex Uno II, mm. 1 8 Timbres can be constructed by adding specific pitches at specific dynamic levels and at specific moments to a fundamental tone. 15 This process is called additive synthesis, and was first explicitly used in the field of electronic music. Most composers of spectral music synthesize timbres with an orchestra or ensemble; however, their goal is not to recreate the exact timbre of the synthesized tone, which is impossible because every instrument produces its own harmonic spectrum. Instead, they aim to create a hybrid sonority, in which the listener can perceive the various individual instrumental timbres as well as the collectively synthesized timbre. 16 Additive synthesis allows composers to blur the line between timbre and harmony to a point of nonexistence. I discuss Haas s use of additive synthesis below. Tria ex Uno III The final part of Haas s work is a free composition based on the Agnus Dei. Sections in Tria ex Uno III refer to specific areas and sonorities in the movement from the mass. Haas reexpresses the existing material in his own distinct dialect, subjecting it to various 15 Joshua Fineberg, Guide to the Basic Concepts and Techniques of Spectral Music, Contemporary Music Review 19, No. 2 (2000): Hasegawa, Grisey,

12 spectral techniques (transdialection). Tria ex Uno III is divided into two main sections, A and B. The first section (mm. 1 76) reworks the first nine measures of the Agnus Dei, and the second section (mm ) focuses on and develops only the first two measures. Tria ex Uno III includes many techniques used by other composers of spectral music. Many of these composers view music, essentially, as sound evolving through time. 17 Gérard Grisey suggests that spectral compositions should explore stretched or contracted time, while Tristan Murail believes that composers of spectral music should favor logarithmic or exponential organization over linear methods. 18 Examples of both Grisey s and Murail s methods can be seen in the music of Haas. Murail s nonlinear organization is evident in the proportions of subsections in Tria ex Uno III: each subsection reworks one (or in one case four) measures from the Agnus Dei, but the lengths of the subsections are nonlinear (i.e., irregular and unpredictable). Haas uses Grisey s temporal method in the reworking of Agnus Dei m. 1, stretching it from 48 seconds 19 in section A to 240 seconds in section B; the reworked Agnus Dei m. 2 is 124 seconds long in section A and compressed to 44 seconds in section B. The proportions of the various subsections in the composition are thus not organized in a linear fashion, but are governed by a different formula. In addition to time, the idea of process is also central to spectral music. Com posers are interested in continually transforming sound from one state to another, and use processes as the basis of form. Early spectral works often rely extensively on processes, because, according to Joshua Fineberg, composers of spectral music privilege this way of organizing music as a way to reclaim the teleological orientation that had been removed by serialism. 20 Processes usually involve gradual transformations that are perceptible rather than underlying: in the foreground rather than in the background. 21 A typical process will either transform sound from a state of stability and order to one of instability and disorder (distortion), or vice versa (restoration). Each subsection of Tria ex Uno III employs a process that transforms the sound from one state to the next. As in many other spectral works, the beginnings of subsections are harmonically stable, with clear pitches and intervals; however, gradual transformations create distortions within each subsection. 22 In addition to these localized processes, larger processes take place over bigger sections of the work, following Grisey, who insists on 17 Fineberg, Spectral Music, Grisey, Did You Say Spectral, 2. Viviana Moskovich, French Spectral Music: An Introduction, Tempo New Series 200 (1997): Due to spectral composers treatment of music as sound moving through time, it is more accurate to describe proportions in temporal terms (seconds) than in notational terms (measures). 20 Fineberg, What s in a Name, Fineberg, Guide to the Basic Concepts, Tristan Murail, Time and Form in Spectral Music, in Spectral World Musics ed. Robert Reigle and Paul Whitehead (Istanbul: Pan Yayıncılık, 2008), 250. Julian Anderson & Tristan Murail, In Harmony. Julian Anderson Introduces the Music and Ideas of Tristan Murail, The Musical Times 134, No (1993):

13 the superimposition and phasing of contradictory, partial, or implied processes. 23 Section A, which paraphrases mm. 1 9 of the Agnus Dei, is based primarily on processes of distortion and restoration. Pitch content alien to that of a natural harmonic spectrum and the combination of two different harmonic spectra create areas of inharmonicity. Section B, paraphrasing only the first two measures, is characterized mainly by two processes: the synthesis of a harmonic spectrum and a process in which chords are gradually transformed in various ways. Section A In the introduction of Tria ex Uno III, Haas sets up the sonority of the opening measure from the Agnus Dei, but in a manner that suggest the synthesis of a timbre (Ex. 4). According to Hasegawa s representation tone theory, 24 the opening sonority can be described as D(2:3:4), the second, third, and fourth partials of a fundamental D. Ex. 4: Synthesized emergence of partials, mm. 1 5 Following this, the first subsection (mm. 7 18) introduces a process of gradual distortion followed by gradual restoration. The piano holds the D(2:3:4) spectrum, while strings and bass clarinet add pitches alien to the D harmonic spectrum (Ex. 5). The sense of release or relaxation in spectral music relies on the listener s subconscious ability to match the various pitches to a specific fundamental tone. This is more likely to occur when the collection of notes resembles the natural harmonic spectrum Grisey, Did You Say Spectral, Robert Hasegawa, Tone Representation and Just Intervals in Contemporary Music, Contemporary Music Review 25, No. 3 (2006): Hasegawa, Grisey,

14 Ex. 5: Process of distortion and restoration, mm. 7 9 A variety of processes in subsection 2 (mm ) add the second pitch of the melody in the Agnus Dei, F, to the sonority (Ex. 6). The addition of F to the D spectrum recalls the D F dyads in the outer parts in Agnus Dei m. 2 (cf. Ex. 2). A D(2:3:4) spectrum is initially heard, to which the alto flute adds an F; the bass clarinet and alto flute then hold a D F dyad. The violin and cello repeat a figure that gradually moves from D to F by means of a glissando; they play this figure in a canon at the unison, with a following period of two seconds. Ex. 6: D F processes, mm Note the large-scale process that the canon undergoes: Tria ex Uno I and II employ a men suration canon at the fifth and octave, with all three parts starting at the same time 14

15 (Ex. 2 and 3); subsection 1 in Tria ex Uno III introduces a following period (Ex. 5); only two parts play the canon in subsection 2, now at the unison, still with a following period, but not in different mensurations (Ex. 6). The harmonic spectra of D and F are contrasted, creating the phenomenon known as polyspectrality, in which two or more spectra are heard simultaneously. The bass clarinet, cello, and violin produce a D(1:5:7) spectrum; at the same time, the flute, bass clarinet, and vibraphone present an F(1:2:3) spectrum (Ex. 7). Ex. 7: D(1:5:7) and F(1:2:3), mm Ex. 8 shows the addition of the note A to the sonority, referring to the soprano part in Agnus Dei m. 3. The function of note is ambiguous, as it falls into both the D spectrum and the F spectrum: D(3:8) and F(5:14). The poco vibrato direction adds to this ambiguity, as the pitch differs between A as the third partial of D and A as the fifth partial of F: D3 has a frequency of Hz, creating a third partial with a frequency of Hz; while F2 has a frequency of 87.31Hz, giving its fifth partial a frequency of Hz. 27 Although all five of the active instruments sound an A, the play between two possible tone representations ensures animation and tension in a setting of low inharmonicity. 26 The violin s accidentals are held from m. 30.4ff; the notes are F-sharp and C-lowered natural, marked 5+7 partials of D. 27 The frequencies of the two fundamental tones are based on an equal-tempered system, using A4 = 440Hz. Fineberg, Guide to the Basic Concepts,

16 Ex. 8: Addition of A, mm Stretched and compressed spectra Wyschnegradsky chords Thus far, my discussion has not touched upon the inharmonic material in the piano part. The process that transforms the state of the chords from harmonic to inharmonic takes place in subsection 1: three chords are presented in the low register of the piano, gradually distorted by being stretched out (Ex. 9). Ex. 9: Chordal stretching, mm. 11, 15, and 17 The first chord is harmonically stable and can be described as D(2:3:4:6), derived from the opening of the Agnus Dei; the second chord is intermediary; the third chord I label chord-x. It uses simple ratios from a stretched harmonic spectrum. Chord-x' is based on the same stretched spectrum as chord-x, with the root on the third partial, instead of on the second. Fig. 1 shows the stretched spectrum as well as chords-x and x'. As in tonal music, chords can be extended by adding higher octaves (harmonic or otherwise) without changing the identity of the chord. Haas also employs the inverse: a spectrum compressed by one semitone per octave. I label chords based on this compressed spectrum as either chord-z or chord-z' (Fig. 2). Between the chord types x and z, there is an intermediate chord, which I label chord-y. It is based on the natural harmonic spectrum, with the third partial and its octave equivalents lowered by one semitone (Fig. 3 and cf. central chord in Ex. 9). 16

17 Following Haas s own terminology, Hasegawa collectively describes the sonorities that I have separately labelled as chord-x and chord-z, as Wyschnegradsky chords (chords built from alternating tritones and either fourths or fifths). He maintains that Haas uses Wyschegradsky chords in various compositions, including In iij. Noct, to emphasize the difference in tuning systems by contrasting these chords to natural harmonic spectra. 28 Fig. 1: Partials 1 4, 6, 8, and 12 in natural and stretched spectra; chords-x and x' Fig. 2: Partials 1 4, 6, 8, and 12 in natural and compressed spectra; chords-z and z' Fig. 3: Partials 1 4, 6, 8, and 12 in natural spectrum; lowered partials 3, 6, and 12; chord-y During subsection 2, the piano presents two transformations: one takes place in the low register, gradually moving from chord-x to chord-y, while in the other, the high register is used to move from chord-y to chord-z' (Ex. 10). Two percussion instruments are used for accentuation: tam-tam for the chords in the lower register, cymbals for the chords in the upper register. Both instruments produce inharmonic, bell-like spectra, making it more difficult to perceive the transformations. 28 Robert Hasegawa, Clashing Harmonic Systems in Haas s Blumenstück and in vain, Music Theory Spectrum 37, No. 2 (2015): 210, 218. For a general account of the significance of Wyschnegradsky chords in Haas s music, see Lisa Farthofer, Georg Friedrich Haas: Im Klange denken (Saarbrücken: Pfau, 2007), These authors do not distinguish between the different types of Wyschnegradsky chords, thereby placing limits on the descriptions of the processes at play in Haas s work. 17

18 Ex. 10: Chord-x to y and chord-y to z' transformations, mm The clarinet presents a rhythmically altered version of the soprano part of Agnus Dei mm. 4 5; Ex. 11 shows the original and the altered line. The notes of the clarinet line are the roots of various transpositions of chord-z (Ex. 12). The process used here is not a shift between different chord-types, but rather a spectral technique (the use of chords based on a compressed spectrum) adorning a melodic line taken from the original Agnus Dei. Ex. 11: Agnus Dei, mm. 4 5; Tria ex Uno III mm

19 Ex. 12: Agnus Dei melodic line as roots of chord-z, Tria ex Uno III, mm Section B The second formal section reworks material borrowed from Agnus Dei mm Each portion in section B makes use of two processes: the first is the synthesis of a harmonic spectrum, while the second builds a Wyschnegradsky chord and/or transforms one type of Wyschnegradsky chord to another. The two processes in section B of Tria ex Uno III highlight the two contrasting tuning systems: the additive synthesis process produces sonorities in just intonation, against which Haas pits the equal temperament of the chordal process. The first subsection in section B (mm ) is an extended development and transdialection of Agnus Dei m. 1. Throughout this subsection, spectra with D-fundamentals are used, referring to the D-harmonic spectrum used in the opening of the Agnus Dei. An F-spectrum is added in the final subsection, as in subsection 2. The synthesized emergence of spectra takes place slowly, with partials added one by one by the winds, percussion, and strings. In addition to the synthesis of harmonic spectra, the required instrumental techniques also emphasize the overtone series. Spanning section B, a process governs the type of spectrum produced by the continuous triplet figure played by various instruments in the ensemble. The inharmonic spectrum of a cymbal is heard first, followed by the strings playing at the bridge, producing partials close to a D-harmonic spectrum, but with added noise elements. The marimba then plays the figure, the closest semblance to the D-harmonic spectrum. The process turns back, presenting the strings again with the same performance instructions; followed by a cymbal. This process thus shades the D-spectrum from Agnus Dei m. 1 by shifting the triplet motive from inharmonicity to harmonicity, and back to inharmonicity. The move away from harmonicity is continued, shifting from the spectrum created by a single cymbal to the combination of the four different spectra produced by four cymbals; the process finds the lowest point of harmonicity in the bell-like spectrum of the tam-tam. Near the end of the subsection (mm ), the additive synthesis and chordal processes are merged into a single process, thereby closing the gap between just intonation and equal temperament. After chord-x has been built by the piano, the notes are passed to the other instruments in the ensemble. Instead of transforming one chord type to another, the process in this subsection transforms chord-x to a D(1:3:5:7:11) spectrum 19

20 by gradually changing the chordal notes to partials, as if by another mode of additive synthesis (Ex. 13). By combining the chordal and synthesis processes, Haas blurs the line between harmony and timbre. 29 Ex. 13: Spectral and chordal processes combined, mm Rose, Introduction to the Pitch Organization, 36. Pressnitzer & McAdams, Acoustics, Psychoacoustics,

21 Both the chordal and spectral processes change in the final subsection (mm ). Chord-x' is not transformed into another chord; instead, it is gradually transposed downward so that the upper note comes to rest on an F (which is the second pitch of the Agnus Dei melody). Instead of synthesizing a single spectrum, Haas presents two spectra simultaneously; they compete against each other. These changes in process refer to the D F processes heard in subsection 2, which borrowed material from Agnus Dei m. 2 (cf. Ex. 6 and 7). In concluding Tria ex Uno III with a D F process, Haas refers to the final moments of Tria ex Uno I and II, in which the mensural canon comes to rest on a D F dyad. Throughout Tria ex Uno III, the endings of melodic phrases from the Agnus Dei are used at closing sections: the C G end of the first phrase has been included in the fermatas near the end of section A (mm ); the B-natural from the end of the second phrase, completing the gamut in the Agnus Dei, is highlighted by the only use of the antique cymbal at the close of section A (mm ); and the D F close of the third phrase has been subjected to spectral techniques to conclude Tria ex Uno III. * * * * * This study set out to determine the spectral methods Haas employs in the treatment of Josquin s Agnus Dei from Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales. Haas s emphasis on timbre is clear in the reorchestration of the mensural canon in Tria ex Uno II. Additive synthesis has been used to create hybrid sonorities and to blur the line between timbre and harmony. The structure of Tria ex Uno III is nonlinear, and Haas makes use of various temporal adaptations. Throughout Tria ex Uno III, harmonic spectra are used at points of stability. The spectra are implemented through additive synthesis and the exploitation of various instruments ability to produce overtones. The natural harmonic spectrum is altered to form two inharmonic spectra, stretched and compressed by one semitone per octave, respectively. These spectra provide the pitch material for the piano s Wyschnegradsky chords: stretched for chord-x; compressed for chord-z. D F polyspectrality is used in two subsections, referring to areas in the Agnus Dei with prominent D F dyads, using these notes as fundamentals of spectra. Harmonicity and inharmonicity are used to govern tension and release in a manner similar to that of consonance and dissonance in the Renaissance. Various processes create structure in Tria ex Uno III. The formal organization in section A is based on processes of restoration and distortion, while in section B, it is based on the synthesis of harmonic spectra and chordal transformation processes. Processes take place on a small scale within subsections (e.g., the synthesis and chordal processes in the subsections of Section B); on a medium scale within sections (e.g., the inharmonic harmonic inharmonic process of the triplet figure throughout section B); and on a large scale between movements (e.g., the gradual changes of the canon between Tria ex Uno I and II, and III). 21

22 My discussion of the spectral techniques used to transform the Agnus Dei has been framed by Burkholder s three types of questions to be asked of any work that employs musical borrowing. My primary aim has been to address the analytical questions; I have also placed the work in its historical context by noting the overall frequency of musical borrowing in the twentieth century as a result of an expanded stylistic distance, the less frequent phenomenon of musical double borrowing, and the recurrence of musical borrowing in Haas s output. Some possible answers in the interpretive realm arise from addressing the analytical and historical questions. Haas takes distinct features of the Agnus Dei and presents them in his own spectral dialect. The opening sonority of the Agnus Dei, D(2:3:4), implies the first partials of a D harmonic spectrum, which Haas extends by adding higher partials and contrasting this sonority with a different harmonic spectrum. He also exploits the premise of a mensural canon, a melody unfolding in different prolations, by reworking the original material through temporal stretching and compressing. By selecting a work from the early Renaissance, Haas creates an extreme historical distance between his music and its source material, thereby foregrounding his own compositional dialect. Unfortunately, open sonorities, mensural canons, and historical distance are not by any means exclusive to Josquin s Agnus Dei. Neither the analytical discussion nor the historical context sheds definitive light on the interpretive realm, but it is my hope that this lacuna is not seen as a disappointing end of the road, but rather as a space that can yet be filled through engagement with other fields and methodologies. Processes of spectralization: From Josquin s Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales to Haas s Tria ex Uno Abstract This article sheds new light on Georg Friedrich Haas s borrowing methods through an analysis of Tria ex Uno, which paraphrases a piece published half a millennium earlier: the Agnus Dei II from Josquin des Prez s Missa L homme armé super voces musicales, which employs borrowing techniques itself. I demonstrate the transformation from the Agnus Dei II to Tria ex Uno by revealing Haas s specific spectral paradigms and techniques within a framework of Peter Burkholder s and Richard Beaudoin s work on musical borrowing. My study thus provides a means to understand the spectral treatment of existing music within the discourse on musical borrowing. 22

23 Procesy spektralizace: od Josquinovy skladby Missa L homme armé Super Voces Musicales k dílu Tria ex uno Georga Friedricha Haase Abstrakt Studie se zabývá metodou hudebních citátů Georga Friedricha Haase prostřednictvím analýzy skladby Tria ex uno; díla, které parafrázuje hudební kus vzniklý o pět set let dříve Agnus Dei II ze skladby Missa L homme armé super voces musicales od Josquina des Prez, který sám o sobě vychází z principů přebírání cizího hudebního materiálu. Transformace Agnus Dei II v Tria ex uno je vysvětlena pomocí definice Haasova specifického spektrálního paradigmatu a technik v teoretickém kontextu hudebního citování Petera Burkholdera a Richarda Beaudoina. Studie nabízí nástroje k pochopení spektrálního zpra cování existující hudby v rámci diskurzu hudebního citování. Keywords Georg Friedrich Haas; intertextuality; Josquin des Prez; musical borrowing; spectralism. Klíčová slova Georg Friedrich Haas; intertextualita; Josquin des Prez; hudební citát; spektralismus. 23

24

25 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 The Lullaby of Ilse Weber: Terezín as a Mirror Image Mirjam Frank Ilse Weber Wiegala Wiegala, wiegala, weier, der Wind spielt auf der Leier. Er spielt so süß im grünen Ried, die Nachtigall, die singt ihr Lied. Wiegala, wiegala, weier, der Wind spielt auf der Leier. Wiegala, wiegala, werne, der Mond ist die Laterne, er steht am dunklen Himmelszelt und schaut hernieder auf die Welt. Wiegala, wiegala, werne, der Mond ist die Laterne. Wiegala, wiegala, weier, the wind plays on the lyre. It s playing sweetly in the reeds, the nightingale sings her song. Wiegala, wiegala, weier, the wind plays on the lyre. Wiegala, wiegala, werne the moon is the lantern, he looks down to earth from heaven s tent. Wiegala, wiegala, werne, the moon is the lantern. Wiegala, wiegala, wille, Wiegala, wiegala, wille, wie ist die Welt so stille! how still the world is! Es stört kein Laut die süße Ruh, No sound disturbs the sweet peace, schlaf, mein Kindchen, schlaf auch du. sleep, my child, sleep. Wiegala, wiegala, wille, Wiegala, wiegala, wille, wie ist die Welt so stille! 30 how still the world is! 31 I would like to thank Professor Michael Beckerman for his encouragement and invaluable advice on the topic. 30 Ilse Weber, Wiegala (poem) in Ulrike Migdal, Ilse Weber: Wann wohl das Leid ein Ende hat, Briefe und Gedichte aus Theresienstadt (München: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2008), Translation: Mirjam Frank. 25

26 According to the liner notes of the 2008 Deutsche Grammophon release Terezín, Wiegala was the last song Ilse Weber ( ) sang together with a group of sick children, whom she had previously nursed in Terezín, while they were waiting for their death in the gas chambers of Auschwitz towards the end of It is likely that her second and youngest son, Tommy, was among these children. The gas chambers of Auschwitz stand in stark contrast with the idea of a calming lullaby in general, and the words of Weber s Wiegala in particular: Wie ist die Welt so stille! How still the world is! The effect created by the juxtaposition is powerful. Yet, even a brief examination will show that this backdrop to Wiegala, presumably written between 1942 and 1944 in Terezín, is a rather murky one. While there is a kind of eyewitness testimony recalling Weber and the children in Auschwitz, which I will elaborate on in more detail later, the accuracy of any testimony, particularly things remembered under distressing circumstances, cannot be taken for granted. Is it really possible that somebody actually witnessed her singing in the gas chambers, since nobody who entered would have survived? The source of Weber s final performance of Wiegala is anything but conclusive. There is no way of knowing if it really happened this way or happened at all. However, it is not only the context of this final sounding of Weber s lullaby that has underlying sources we cannot prove. We are also unsure about the texts themselves. In keeping with the questionable origins of the story is a certain ambiguity regarding the surviving manuscripts of Weber s music. As we shall see, extant arrangements of Wiegala and other tunes attributed to the songwriter are somewhat arbitrary. However, the mere existence of the gas chamber narrative, and the fact that it has found its way to presentday audiences, charges Wiegala with meaning that aims to add a darker, more desperate side to its apparent simplicity. In the following, I will set out to ask some central questions about the Ilse Weber phenomenon: How and why have her songs and poems found their way into today s music scene, and to what effect? What are the reasons for the radically differing versions of the music ascribed to Ilse Weber, and how does this play into the modelling of manifold notions of Terezín by individual performers? On what basis do we add to the songs, transform them, and make them our own? What conclusions, if any, can we draw both about the music and the composer based on the material available, and what are some of the wider issues of Terezín music today? There are manifold ways to attempt answers to these questions. However, my main argument shall be that the popularity of Ilse Weber s music in Terezín commemorations is directly related to the scarce and often unverifiable sources we have, which give room for performers to add meaning, and to model their own Ilse. Of course, the notion of re-imagining a historic site by adding to the material at hand applies much more broadly to all kinds of retrospectives. Yet, as we shall see, Ilse Weber s case is a particularly po wer ful one in this regard because the places her works were created and performed 32 Ulrike Migdal in Terezín/Theresienstadt, CD liner notes (Berlin: Deutsche Grammophon, 2008), pp

27 in Terezín and presumably Auschwitz do not lend themselves to straightforward and uncomplicated truths. Nonetheless, more often than not, her tunes are appropriated to do just that: to tell a simplified sentimental story about a woman who found herself in a horrific place. Before investigating Ilse Weber and her Terezín-songs in more detail, it is useful to outline some of the functions of the ghetto itself, which, after all, provided the context for her texts and music. A Potemkin Village The ghetto or Durchgangslager Terezín, which accommodated a large number of educated and formerly well-respected Jews, amongst them composers, writers, conductors, directors and visual artists, was selected to serve as propaganda tool, as a place through which the Nazis could demonstrate to the outside world that they made possible a culturally vibrant and otherwise good life for Jews. All of this, of course, was part of a plan to deceive the Swiss delegates of the International Red Cross who visited Terezín on 23 June In the months before their appearance, the ghetto underwent beautification and also prepared for the production of a propaganda film titled Theresienstadt: Ein Dokumentarfilm aus dem jüdischen Siedlungsgebiet. 33 The film was to serve as a document to the outside world to give a false image of how idyllic a place a ghetto or concentration camp indeed was. According to a number of testimonies, during these months in 1944 prisoners were relatively free to follow cultural activities such as participating in concerts, opera or theatre productions and sports events. 34 The inmates were allowed to schedule up to four concerts every day, and these and other activities of the Freizeitgestaltung (leisure time organisation) were welcomed by the Nazis as part of a strategy to demonstrate to the world what a cultural site Bad Theresienstadt, as they cynically called it, was. 35 What exactly this freedom meant for the individual is hard to say. We do have testimonies from survivors like Ruth Elias, who heard many concerts and describes a considerable change of the everyday ghetto life. 36 Nonetheless, we cannot assume that everyone was affected in the same way. However, the fraudulent construct of the Nazis paradoxically provided a niche for creativity, and perhaps even hope for the oppressed. Thus, the ghetto became a Potemkin Village during the summer of Although the inmates were forced 33 Karel Margry, Theresienstadt ( ): The Nazi propaganda film depicting the concentration camp as paradise, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 12, No. 2 (1992): See interviews with Alice Herz-Sommer and Coco Schumann in Refuge in Music: Theresienstadt, Dorothee Binding, Benedict Mirow, dir., DVD (Berlin: Deutsche Grammophon, 2013). 35 On Freizeitgestaltung see Ulrike Migdal, Und die Musik spielt dazu: Chansons und Satiren aus dem KZ Theresienstadt (München: Piper, 1986). 36 Ruth Elias, Die Hoff nung erhielt mich am Leben: Mein Weg von Theresienstadt und Auschwitz nach Israel (München: Piper, 1988),

28 to participate in creating a fake image of their everyday reality, a number of them did have a better and culturally richer life than any of those who found themselves at Auschwitz or another concentration camp, or war-torn places in general. Ruth Elias, who survived both Terezín and Auschwitz, remembers that the first concert she heard in the ghetto was one of my most festive concerts I was ever allowed to listen to. 37 Against all odds, Terezín became a grotesque kind of home to a number of its culturally active residents during the time of its so-called beautification. Thus, the fake reality created by the Nazis became real to some, even if only for a short while. Most of the participants of the Theresienstadt documentary were deported to Auschwitz shortly after the shooting was finished. 38 Ilse Weber and the Wiegala myth As a consequence of Terezín s special status, a large number of art works survived the war, including music manuscripts, poetry, letters, and drawings. Music composed or performed in the ghetto is central to many of the current attempts to reflect and rework its history. Krása s opera for children, Brundibár, is of course one of the more prominent examples. Others are instrumental pieces along the lines of the Second Viennese School such as Gideon Klein s Piano Sonata, cabaret songs like As if by Leo Strauss, or the simple tunes by Ilse Weber. Thus, we may ask: if anything from serious art music to dark-humoured cabaret may be found among the music composed in Terezín, how is it that the nostalgic and perhaps even naïve nature of a song like Wiegala is often foregrounded? 39 In the liner notes to the 2008 CD Terezín mentioned above, Ulrike Migdal writes that Weber s songs in their simplicity and heartfelt inwardness [ ] are amongst the most moving works written in Theresienstadt. As noted earlier, she connects her observation with the statement that Ilse Weber voluntarily went to her death together with the sick children from the camp. Eyewitnesses report that in the gas chambers, she sang her song, Wiegala (Lullaby), with the Theresienstadt children. 40 Yet, who were these eyewitnesses? The likely source for this story is a passage from the book Ilse Weber: Wann wohl das Leid ein Ende hat, also written by Migdal, with the following recollection by a surviving friend of the Weber family from Ostrava/Ostrau of Ilse s arrival in Auschwitz together with a number of children from the sick ward (his identity is not further specified): Sometime in the autumn of 1944, I saw a group of ten to fifteen children that had just been transported here. Ilse was among them and tried to comfort the little ones. Is it true that we may take a shower after the journey? she asked. I did not want to lie, and answered: No, 37 Ibid., 104. Translation: Mirjam Frank 38 Margry, Theresienstadt ( ), Songs by Krása, Haas and Ulmann of course do not explicitly address Terezín itself, but the musical language of their pieces is much more jarring and unsettling. 40 Migdal in Terezín/Theresienstadt,

29 this isn t a bathroom, it is a gas chamber, and I will give you the following advice: I have often heard you sing in the sick ward. Enter the gas chambers as fast as you can. Sit down with the children and start singing. Sing what you have always sung with them. This way, you will inhale the gas more quickly. Otherwise, you ll be trampled to death once everyone starts to panic. Ilse s reaction was strange. She laughed, somehow absent-mindedly, hugged one of the children and said: So we won t shower then. 41 As opposed to the Grammophon text we encounter the voice of an eyewitness here. Although this initially seems like clear evidence, it is information that comes to us through recollection. It is a retelling of an event that may or may not have taken place that way; we have no way of knowing. While the story of Weber s encounter with a friend just before the gas chambers may well have happened along the lines outlined above, is it really possible that anyone could have had the chance to hear her sing inside the chambers, given that no one who once went in would have survived? According to Migdal, the family friend who told Weber to sing songs with the children was appointed by the Nazis to transport corpses from the gas chambers to the crematoria. Nonetheless, it remains unclear whether she did follow his advice and, if she did, which song(s) she chose. Yet, despite its unverifiable nature, the account of Weber singing in the gas chambers has become firmly attached to Wiegala. But what do we actually know about the song, the music itself? In order to illustrate how fragmentary the music sources are, I would like to investigate two of Weber s songs more closely: Wiegala, which is one of the few songs for which we may actually have a handwritten manuscript of the melody line by Weber herself, and Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, which has probably been subject to more contrasting arrangements than any of her other works. Wiegala : the manuscript and its performances Fig. 1: Transcription of the manuscript of Wiegala as found in Migdal, Ilse Weber, p. 269 The manuscript shows that the melody of Wiegala was originally written in 3/4 and in the key of E minor. Further, the words of the first verse are placed underneath the melody 41 Migdal, Ilse Weber, Translation: Mirjam Frank 29

30 line. A caption of the manuscript can be found in Ulrike Migdal s book Ilse Weber: Wann wohl das Leid ein Ende hat, and seems to have been verified as Weber s own handwriting. 42 From the information given in the score, we cannot draw conclusions about how the tune was harmonized, or what tempo and instrumentation might have been like. A literal performance of this manuscript, absent any accompaniment or indications of harmony, may have sounded like a 2014 recording by Delilah Gutman, an Italian musician and composer. 43 We get a certain sense of fragility and perhaps even loneliness in Gutman s performance because the lack of accompaniment leaves the melody hanging ; it is devoid of a foundation, as it of course would have been had Weber sung it in the gas chambers. Gutman chooses a relatively slow tempo and often decelerates or even pauses, which makes her performance somewhat eerie because it interrupts the rocking motion of the lullaby. Although simple and straightforward at first, Gutman s version also suggests solitude and disruption. Can we thus hear Terezín somewhere behind the simple tune, or is such an association a mere figment of our imagination, after having been informed about the song s background? Do the recurring downward leaps of a fifth, from B back to its E minor tonic, enforce a darker, more desperate mood? Aside from musical considerations, the song s last line how still the world is can of course also be read as a metaphor for death and forgetting. Might we thus say that Gutman s recording provides us with an authentic representation of Wiegala, with the real Ilse, because she more or less closely sticks to what we find on the page and the fact that there certainly was no guitar available in the gas chambers? Or may her performance perhaps lend itself all too easily to notions of loneliness and sorrow, as if intended to create a present-day memorial? 42 I learned from several sources (among them Weber s son Hanuš and Ulrike Migdal) that all letters and manuscripts were donated to Yad Vashem by Hanuš. Even after multiple requests I have not been able to access more than four digitized files. Thus, the current location of the music and other manuscripts I am looking for is unknown to me. It has therefore been impossible for me to substantiate Migdal s claim of the handwritten Wiegala score by means of the sources available to me. The mentioned manuscript as well as any other handwritten sources seem inaccessible at this point. The original files I was able to investigate were typewritten (Weber often mentioned her preference for the typewriter over the use of pens in letters to her friend Lilian). Ulrike Migdal included in her book a last postcard written by Weber from Terezín. Since she chose block letters here, a comparison to the supposed manuscript (cursive) seems impossible. Addition (15 December 2015): After the submission of this article and three previously made attempts to obtain information from Yad Vashem regarding Ilse Weber s Nachlass, I finally managed to get information about the files containing manuscripts and other material. Given the short notice, I have not evaluated or even received any of it yet, but am looking forward to doing so and presenting any issues raised by these documents at some point in the future. Although I did not have a chance to look at all of this material when I worked on my article, I still suspect the collection to be fragmentary, and thus still suggest that the lack of easily accessible original sources (and/or a thorough evaluation of these) present ideal conditions for the creation of all kinds of Terezín memorials by allowing for manifold notions of Ilse Weber. 43 Italya Isola Della Rugiada Divina, Delilah Sharon Gutman, Rephael Negri, perf., CD (Milan: Stradivarius, 2014). 30

31 Deutsche Grammophon s Terezín with Anne Sofie von Otter as singer of Wiegala is perhaps the most widely known release of Ilse Weber s music. Even though the arrangement made for the renowned Swedish mezzo-soprano goes far beyond the information provided by the manuscript, it carefully considers possible authentic performance practice by using a guitar as sole instrument of accompaniment. Ruth Elias for instance, who became a close friend of Weber s in Terezín, recalls how the young songwriter and poet managed to smuggle a guitar into her so-called Kumbalek: 44 A lute (which is what Ruth Elias called Ilse s guitar) had a special place on one of the walls in her Kumbalek, which one of the Czech gendarmes had filched for her, i.e., he had smuggled it into the camp. 45 Musical instruments of any kind were confi scated as contraband during the first years of the ghetto, owning them was strictly prohibited. But Ilse was lucky that her Kumbalek was never searched by the SS, for had they discovered this lute, she would have immediately received orders for the East-transport. [ ] It may sound paradoxical, but we spent unforgettable hours in Ilse s Kumbalek, in which she sang songs with the lute. 46 According to the above, it thus seems likely that the songs Weber wrote in Terezín were accompanied by guitar (or perhaps, as Elias called it, a lute, which may once more challenge our interpretation of Weber s music). Of course, we still cannot know what Weber s singing voice and style sounded like, and how she would have harmonized the piece. In contrast to Gutman, von Otter s lullaby stays more true to what we imagine its original, traditional use to be: the tempo is faster and steadier in a way that allows the piece to flow. Also aided by the evenly strummed chords in the guitar accompaniment, this Wiegala could indeed rock a baby to sleep. Von Otter sings the tune with sensitivity to the musical demands, but still manages to present Wiegala somewhat matter-of-factly, i.e., without sentimentality, without adding dramatic layers to hint at the song s suggested backstory. This assessment, of course, is a result of my own subjective listening, and other listeners might have different views. 44 A Kumbalek is a tiny room, which Weber shared with her sister-in-law, Erna. See Migdal, Ilse Weber, Annotation in brackets inserted by Ulrike Migdal. While it is most likely that Weber, who was largely a self-taught musician, had a guitar at her disposal in Terezín, it still seems odd that Elias would refer to it as a lute. A photograph taken in 1928 shows Weber with a lute (Migdal, Ilse Weber, p. 2). Of course, it must have been a different instrument than the one she used in Terezín. In letters Weber wrote to her friend Lilian in Sweden, she also talks about playing the lute. However, the kind of lute shown in the 1928 picture is played and tuned like a guitar, and merely adopts the visual aspects of the early instrument. This quasi-guitar seems to have been rather common around the time (I would like to thank lutenist Axel Wolf for his assessment of the matter). We also know that Weber was given a balalaika by a Gypsy when she was a young woman. She thus might have had access to yet another style of music making. 46 Ruth Elias quoted in Migdal, Ilse Weber, 323. Translation: Mirjam Frank. 31

32 Knowing that Weber played her songs on a guitar does of course not answer the question of how she might have performed them had she had more instruments at her disposal. A recording suggesting yet another approach to interpreting Wiegala is Bente Kahan s from her album Stimmen aus Theresienstadt (voices from Terezín). Kahan is a Norwegian cabaret singer who grew up in Tel Aviv and New York. She made herself known as an artist committed to keeping up and continuing the traditions of European Jews. 47 For this reason, it is not surprising that the arrangements and instrumentation of songs presented in her album allude to Jewish folk music, particularly klezmer styles. In addition to the guitar, we also hear a violin part that is both used to complement the harmony and as an independent voice. Kahan sings the lullaby a fourth down from its original key, which allows her to employ the speech-like vocal quality often found on the theatre stage because the singer can stay in chest voice. Stylized glottal stops and a heightened sense of emotive expression underline the folksiness inherent to her interpretation. Like Gutman s solo recording, Kahan s Wiegala has a much more dramatic turn to it than von Otter s. The singer presents us with a theatrical, colourful version of Ilse Weber, one that we might imagine on the cabaret stages of Terezín, and thus in line with the supposedly original version of another one of Weber s songs, Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, as will be shown later. Most striking however is the fact that, unlike any other performance, Kahan s changes the metre from a waltz to common time. 48 Weber s surviving son Hanuš was involved in compiling the liner notes of this particular album, and as far as I understand from an conversation I had with him in December 2014, he is on friendly terms with the Norwegian singer. Unfortunately, my attempts to get in touch with Kahan herself in order to enquire about the change of metre and her arrangements of Weber s song more generally have remained unsuccessful. We may consider the possibility that she did not have access to the autograph discussed above at the time the album was produced in 1997, but perhaps either heard a rendition of the song by someone else, or encountered a copy made by a survivor of Terezín after the war. Almost all of the other recordings of Wiegala I could find were made in 2008 or later, which is when Deutsche Grammophon released Terezín and Ulrike Migdal published her book with the caption of the Wiegala manuscript. Assuming that Kahan might have used a score or recording that was brought to her by one of Weber s surviving inmates after the war, how would we treat such a source compared to the original? Is it possible at all that a transcription from someone else s memory might be more authentic than a composer s own notation? We must keep in mind that Ilse Weber was a poet and writer of folk tunes, not a composer of classical art music. Concepts like accuracy and detail seem much more flexible here. Who knows if the composer always cared to follow her own manuscript? Maybe she even sang it in common time herself from time to time? 47 The official page of Bente Kahan, < 48 Bente Kahan, Stimmen aus Theresienstadt: Lieder nach Gedichten von Ilse Weber & Songs aus den Kabaretts (Dortmund: Pläne, 1997). 32

33 From Elias, we also know that the songwriter was a keen improviser, which may mean that different Wiegalas might have already existed then. 49 The concept of Terezín music: Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt Music composed in Terezín is almost exclusively performed in memorial concerts today; concerts which devote themselves to a hearing of the music through the historic lens of the Holocaust. We do not hear songs like Weber s paired with compositions by Brahms, Schubert or Bach. Instead, we hear them as a re-enactment of the creative efforts that were made at the same time as others went into gas chambers. Through testimonies, we know that the soundscape of Terezín was by no means exclusively defined by the pieces we hear in many memorial concerts today. Indeed, an authentic Terezín performance could have included pieces by Bach, Beethoven and Mozart, alongside cabaret and opera productions, folk music sessions and jazz concerts. 50 Of course, the question remains what an authentic Terezín performance might be and whether we would want to re-create it. As is perhaps the case with all commemorative events, there can be a danger of projecting sentimentality and perhaps even nostalgia into a programme consisting of music exclusively written in camps, nestled in its crass historic background. In order to illustrate my concern here, I would like to point to Ute Lemper s emotionally charged performance of Weber s Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt (I wander through Terezín). 51 First of all, just like with Wiegala, there are a number of choices that can be made when performing the song. Composer and arranger Winfried Radeke published two versions in his 2008 edition of songs to poems by Ilse Weber. 52 All of the texts in this volume were written by Weber herself, the origins of melodies and accompaniments however are mostly unclear to the reader. 53 Rather surprisingly, the version that is directly attributed to Weber has a march-like accompaniment. The second-beat triplets add a tone of mockery or sarcasm to a text that talks about a walk through Terezín with the heart as heavy as lead (Ex. 2 bars 1 and 5), somewhat reminiscent of the grotesque cynicism of Berlin cabaret. 49 Elias in Migdal, Ilse Weber, See Joza Karas, Music in Terezin (Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon Press, 1985), Holocaust Memorial Concert, Rai 5, Rome 26 January 2015, accessed via YouTube < youtube.com/watch?v=1lz_4dwy09w>. 52 Winfried Radeke, ed., Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt: Lieder für Singstimme und Klavier (Berlin: Bote & Bock, 2008), pp. 6, The editor, Winfried Radeke, explains in a foreword that most of the sources of the accompaniments to Weber s songs are unidentifiable. Yet, it is not always apparent to the reader where exactly he (or someone else) added to Weber s poems and/or manuscripts. 33

34 Fig. 2: Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt as composed by Ilse Weber, according to Radeke, Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, p. 6 The song as arranged by Radeke imitates guitar-arpeggios, perhaps deriving from our knowledge that Weber had a guitar in the ghetto. Nonetheless, the change of rhythmic action in the accompaniment here of course suggests an atmosphere of resignation, which stands in stark contrast to the rather provocative, march-like variant attributed to Weber. Fig. 3: Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt as arranged by Radeke in Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, p. 16 Ute Lemper s arrangement is much more like the one provided by Radeke, and she heigh tens the sentimentality of the blissfully rippling arpeggios we hear from the piano by giving an introduction to the song and calling it a proof of life, a proof of the spirit, the compassion and the love of Ilse Weber and all those others [ ]. Lemper closes with the words [ ] never ever again, alluding to a time in history that has passed and left behind its terror. Her performance has the potential to suggest that we are a morally superior audience because we understand. 54 Lemper s audience learns little about the context, i.e., the actual circumstances under which the songs were written, performed and passed on. Instead, we are presented with the larger concerns: the camp, the death of millions. In the case of Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, we hear a sweet and mellow tune and, at the same time, are lead to think about gas chambers and crematoria. The chasm between these two thought processes could not be bigger and the kinds of reactions that are triggered in an audience by the juxtaposition of such contrasting images are variable, ambiguous and poorly understood. 54 Holocaust Memorial Concert, Rai 5, Rome 26 January

35 Yet, despite the number of performances and recordings that were made of Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, we do not even know whether the song was actually composed by Ilse Weber herself. The first, march-version is attributed in its entirety to Ilse Weber by the editor Winfried Radeke. However, it is known that Weber was primarily a guitarist (or lutenist ) and not a pianist, which makes it rather unlikely that the accompaniment was written by her. Deutsche Grammophon attributes only text and melody to Weber. The liner notes to Stimmen aus Theresienstadt only credit her as the writer of the lyrics. Moreover, we have no way of knowing when the songs of Weber were written down, how and by whom they were remembered, or whether they might be post-war compositions altogether as long as original manuscripts and other sources from the Nachlass remain unlocatable or lost. Why Ilse Weber? As demonstrated above, the case of Ilse Weber is a particularly interesting one regarding the Terezín commemoration concerts. Reconstructions of her music are anything but straightforward, owing to the small amount of surviving source material. According to Radeke, 11 songs survived, eight of which were brought to us by Weber s fellow inmates after the war. Apart from Wiegala, there supposedly are manuscripts of Schlaf, mein Püppchen and Emigrantenlied. 55 Information provided by Ulrike Migdal, who perhaps has more insight into the texts and music written by Ilse Weber than anyone else, states that only eight songs survived, and the songwriter s own son, Hanuš, also mentioned eight songs to me in an . However, the pieces he lists slightly differ from Migdal s account. 56 Although the state of Weber s song collection is rather fragmentary, we also have to keep in mind that her pieces were not so-called art songs, which are notated in a far more detailed manner, offering much less freedom to the performer. If anything, they belong in the category of folk music or popular song, which means that, with or without a complete surviving manuscript, the songs are much more likely to be adjusted by the performer. Thus, the nature of Weber s songs, and the fact that their origins remain unclear to us, somehow make Ilse Weber ungraspable as both woman and songwriter, and an ideal figure for the creation of manifold notions of Terezín. On the surface it seems that through the inwardness and simplicity of songs like Wiegala and Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, we as an audience are granted access 55 Radeke, Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, In Ilse Weber, p. 338, Migdal lists Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt, Und der Regen rinnt, Ade, Kamerad, Kleines Wiegenlied, Wiegenlied (Ukolébavka), Emigrantenlied, Gebet (Modlitba) and Wiegala. Hanuš Weber lists the same songs with the exception of Gebet. Instead, he names a piece called Dobrý den. Further, Migdal informs us that compositions by Ilse Weber to the texts of these eight songs have survived, but we do not learn what the scores might look like. Migdal also states that a lot of material, perhaps including music manuscripts, was confiscated (and destroyed) during house searches in the communist era in Prague. 35

36 to the inner world of the songwriter Ilse Weber. Although none of us had to experience the inhumanity of WW2 in Central Europe, we can all somehow connect to a nostalgic longing for a place of hope, calm and peace. In the two pieces discussed, Weber does not give a vivid account of the horrific reality at Terezín, and, accompanied by the gas chamber narrative, offers us a much more universal notion of Weltschmerz than a graphic depiction would do. Depending on how it is harmonized, a simple song like Wiegala, that seems to be caught in its minor key, alongside imagery of the moon as lantern, the wind that plays on the lyre and the stillness of the world, is both sad and consoling at the same time. At the 2014 Canberra International Festival of Music, for instance, a programme titled Triumph of the Heart: Music from the Camps included two pieces by Weber, among them Wiegala. 57 A member of the audience expressed the effect this particular song had on her as follows: [ ] The audience were unable to move at the end. Many, like me, sat with tears rolling down their faces as we processed what we were hearing. Chris Latham had earlier explained that this song was written for the children of Terezín as a lullaby, but that it had finally been sung to them [ ] in the gas chamber at Auschwitz. 58 What would their reaction have been had they not been introduced to the background story? Conclusion The rediscovery of Ilse Weber s songs has certainly enabled a Terezín-story that introduces a kind of simplicity and quietness into a place that is mostly associated with noise, uncertainty and existential angst. It could even be said to add a lighter, maternal facet to the Terezín canon that otherwise consists of works by male composers. Yet, the stillness and simplicity are deceptive, both in the song Wiegala that, as noted above, repeatedly falls a fifth back to its dark minor tonic, and in the way singular notions of Ilse Weber and Terezín are shaped. That Weber indeed was an unusually strong and caring woman who tried to uplift the spirits of others through songs and poetry is beyond doubt. However, it becomes clear through her large collection of letters and poems that she was a much more multi-faceted woman. Weber was politically engaged and forward thinking. She was a mother of two, a writer of radio plays and poetry, and engaged in socialist thought. Further, Weber had a sharp sense for the developments in central Europe in the 1930s. 59 In an interview from 2008, Weber s eldest and only surviving son Hanuš reveals that, through her letters and poems, he discovered sides of his mother he had never known, and is unsure how to 57 Canberra International Music Festival: The Fire and the Rose, 9 18 May 2014, programme, < 58 Post by Wild Voices Music Theatre seen on Facebook < Theatre/posts/ >, 13 May Migdal, Ilse Weber,

37 reconcile them. 60 We might take Hanuš s ambivalence, along with the many versions of Wiegala, as a caution against creating a unitary picture of Weber and, instead, embrace a multi-faceted persona comprising contradictions and unresolved questions. Although nostalgia was certainly one of many survival modes within the walls of Tere zín, we have to remind ourselves that Terezín itself must never become a place of nostalgia for us. Many of the performers introduced above have done important and valuable work. They make us listen to the words of a woman who was silenced in Auschwitz in Her music deserves to be heard in all kinds of contexts, and certainly does not have to be restricted to memorial events. Authenticity, of course, can by no means be a criterion for today s performances. Not only because a re-enactment of Terezín cannot be in anybody s interest, but also to keep her music alive and prevent it from becoming a museum exhibit. It may well speak for itself. Daniel Hope poignantly points out that this music does not need its history; but has it. 61 Yet, as we have seen, Wiegala or Ich wandre durch Theresienstadt seem to lend themselves particularly well to evoking emotional responses. Sentimentalizing Weber s lullaby poses the danger of transforming Terezín itself into a nostalgic place for its audiences. Of course, it is hardly a coincidence that Wiegala is readily used for such a transformation, for lullabies in general function particularly well regarding softer and more sentimental appropriations. This form of nostalgia, in turn, creates a mirror image of what the Nazis had had in mind: a model concentration camp for visitors. Because we are not made aware that the compositions we are hearing have been altered and given different meanings ever since they were found and sung for the fi rst time, memorial events may run the risk of creating yet another Potemkin Village, a Potemkin Concert, a place that avoids direct and uncomfortable confrontation with a historic event that will always pose more questions than it can provide answers. Some of these memorials may even provide a platform for moral whitewashing, perhaps blended with a little bit of voyeurism, at the expense of (musical) variety. Terezín served as a model camp in 1944 to create a false image of concentration camp reality; Terezín serves as a model camp today, 60 years after the war, where some of the ostensibly most sentimental and accommodating tunes are a vehicle for nostalgic sentiments in a world where we would do well to make such performances relevant for present times, where to some genocide and war are a present reality. 60 Interview conducted by Yasemin Ergin for NDR Kulturjournal; accessed via < de/weber.php>. 61 Refuge in Music: Theresienstadt, Berlin 2013, [50:00]. Translation: Mirjam Frank 37

38 The Lullaby of Ilse Weber: Terezín as a Mirror Image Abstract Although Ilse Weber s compositions have become central to the Terezín canon, very few of her musical manuscripts are available. My study argues that the lack of sources actually serves Weber s popularity, as her Terezín songs can be tailored to the needs of individual performers to represent manifold notions of Terezín. Furthermore, my research juxtaposes Terezín s current status as a memorial site with its original function as a Potemkin Village. Considering that much of the complexity of Terezín s original soundscape has been ignored or suppressed, I argue that it has become a simplified mirror image of the model ghetto it originally was. Ukolébavka Ilse Weber: Terezín jako obraz v zrcadle Abstrakt Ačkoliv se skladby Ilse Weber staly středem terezínského kánonu, jejich rukopisy jsou stále těžko dostupné. Studie tvrdí, že právě tato skutečnost přispívá k popularitě Ilse Weber, neboť interpretace jejích písní takto zůstává otevřená různým pojetím, potažmo představám reprezentace Terezína. Studie dále srovnává současný status Terezína jako pamětního místa s původním určením tzv. Potěmkinovy vesnice. S ohledem na současný reduktivní obraz hudebního života v Terezíně studie nachází paralely se zjednodušeným obrazem daného místa jako vzorového ghetta v minulosti. Keywords Auschwitz; Freizeitgestaltung; Ilse Weber; Lullaby; Memorial; Mirror Image; Potemkin Village; Sentimentality; Terezín/Theresienstadt. Klíčová slova Auschwitz (Osvětim); Freizeitgestaltung; Ilse Weber; ukolébavka; památník; obraz v zrcadle; Potěmkinova vesni ce; sentimentalita; Terezín/Theresienstadt. 38

39 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 Bridging Deep Chasms: The Soviet Third Direction in Aleksei Rybnikov s Rock Opera The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta Alexandra Grabarchuk Introduction Soviet rock opera was an anomaly among official, state-approved music for at least two reasons. First, it clearly borrowed from bourgeois Western sources even more so than regular Soviet popular music, generally called estrada. 62 While the latter ranged in ideological conformity from the pro-soviet civic songs of Aleksandra Pakhmutova to the apolitical and progressively tinged concept albums of David Tukhmanov, rock opera owed its very existence to such Western models as Jesus Christ Superstar. 63 Yet that wasn t the only bold characteristic of this genre. Another and potentially even more significant process elucidated through examining Soviet rock opera is an unprecedented mixing of academic music and estrada in what the Composers Union retrospectively called the Third Direction. In 2005, Ukrainian scholars I. Stetsiuk and M. Abakumov described the Third Direction as having roots in several tendencies in academic Eastern European music of the 1950s to the 1980s, including cinematic and electronic music. 64 This article will argue that Soviet rock opera was allowed to exist and evolve in part because it was another prime example of this optimization between serious and light music Borrowed from the French estrade, the term literally means small stage. Refers to cabaret, circus, popular music, and other small-scale forms of art intended to be performed on stage. For further discussion of Soviet estrada, see Alexandra Grabarchuk, The Soundtrack of Stagnation: Paradoxes within Soviet Rock and Pop of the 1970s, (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 2015). 63 A detailed account of JCSS circulating in composers circles can be found in Peter J. Schmelz, From Scriabin to Pink Floyd: The ANS Synthesizer and the Politics of Soviet Music between Thaw and Stagnation, Sound Commitments: Avant-Garde Music and the Sixties, ed. Robert Adlington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), I. O. Stetsiuk & M. A. Abakumov, Tret e napravlenie i kinomuzyka Eduarda Artеm eva (Kiev: Ukraine National Musical Academy, 2005), Ibid. 39

40 Although estrada also engaged with classical forms (see David Tukhmanov s 1975 album On the Wave of my Memory for both aural and visual examples), the union of opera and rock music had previously neither been recognized nor lauded in an official ca pacity. With rock opera, just as with film or other collaborative art forms that rely heavily on institutionalized support, nationally funded theaters and artists needed the backing of government organs in order to produce any large-scale spectacle. The fact that such backing, however conditional or fraught, was found in the Soviet 1970s is a phenomenon worth exploring; it speaks to the peculiar flexibility of a Soviet aesthetic. This article will briefly touch upon the genesis of rock opera in the Soviet Union, and then examine the production of one of the first rock operas in the USSR Aleksei Rybnikov s The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta (Звезда и смерть Хоакина Мурьеты, 1976). Through examining the role of composer the auteur of the Third Direction I will argue that the transposition of rock music to the stage helped to improve its status in the Soviet Union, where theater was prized for its educational and artistic potentials. 66 The term Third Direction was coined in the 1980s, toward the very end of the period it describes. Various sources give conflicting information on which composer used it first (Rodion Shchedrin and Vladimir Dashkevich are just two of the names mentioned as possible progenitors of the phrase). As it so often happens, the terminology began appearing only when the movement itself was in full swing, uniting the gestures, technology, and aesthetics of serious, classical contemporary music on the one hand, and the accessibility, simplicity, and unpretentiousness of light music that was meant for purposes of entertainment, and even more precisely commerce on the other. 67 This term soon started appearing in musical publications, lent its name to a theater studio, and ultimately engendered a Third Direction creative laboratory within the Composers Union. 68 The goal of this movement was not only to bring together diverging aesthetics, but perhaps even more importantly, to reconcile two almost feuding audiences who were fiercely antagonizing one another. 69 Russian-born ethnomusicologist Izaliy Zemtskovskiy discerned qualities such as stylistic variability, a multiplicity of sources, and a tendency toward theatricality as intrinsic to the Third Direction philosophy. 70 It is the latter, thespian characteristic that enabled rock opera to flourish in the Soviet Union under this movement s aegis. The popularity of this aesthetic trend is partly attributable to a well- 66 The notion of theatricalization of music is common in Russia; in 2005, it was even addressed in the realm of popular song in O. Deviatova s Teatralizatsiya pesni v otechestvennoi massovoi kul ture poslednei treti XX veka (Ph.D. dissertation, Ural State University, 2005). 67 Rodion Shchedrin, Nepovtorimost talanta i lichnosti, in Anatoliy Tsuker, Mikael Tariverdiev (Moscow: Sovetskiy kompozitor, 1985), Tret e napravlenie: chto eto? Zachem? za i protiv Sovetskaia muzyka 1 (1990): Anatoliy Tsuker, Mikael Tariverdiev, (Moscow: Soviet Composer, 1985), Izaliy Zemtsovskiy, I. Egikov, in Kompozitory moskvy 3, (Moscow: Sovetskiy kompozitor, 1988),

41 chosen metaphor, rather than [to] any theoretical distinction. 71 A somewhat vague attribution, the deliberately imprecise talk of a third way enabled musical hybridizations, chief among them the rock opera and the rock ballet. It is among this company that we find the names most frequently associated with the Third Direction: Aleksei Rybnikov, Eduard Artem ev, and the composer of the USSR s first rock opera, Aleksandr Zhurbin. The Song of Orpheus Like many estrada songwriters in the Soviet Union, Zhurbin was trained and worked in academic genres, writing symphonies and concertos, as well as working in more contemporary and popular styles. In the late 1960s, after graduating with honors from the Tashkent State Conservatory s cello studio, he garnered a PhD in musicology from the Leningrad Conservatory with a dissertation on Mahler. 72 In this sense, he was well equipped to bring rock music into the opera hall at this opportune moment. Soviet musicians and publishers had been worried by the deep chasm between music designed for entertainment and serious music since the Fourth Congress of the Union of Composers in A. M. Tsuker s 1993 book-length study on this tension, suitably entitled Both Rock and Symphony, distinguishes between classical and commercial, popular modes in a telling fashion. Rock is described and dealt with as a mere lifestyle, whereas a symphony is deemed to be a formal achievement. This subjective and problematic generalization nonetheless helps us to understand the often incompatible discourses or debates within the Soviet Union regarding light music. Much of Tsuker s book is therefore dedicated to a possible synthesis of mass and academic musical enterprise, citing rock opera somewhat surprisingly as a possible mélange of two opposites. Although other Soviet composers followed this path and composed rock operas, Aleksandr Zhurbin would be the first. In 1973, he became involved with the Vocal-Instrumental Ensemble The Singing Guitars (Поющие гитары), setting Russian Futurist or avant-garde poetry of the early twentieth century to estrada songs. 74 By that time, however, British rock opera Jesus Christ 71 Anatoliy Tsuker, Both Rock and Symphony (Moscow: Kompozitor, 1993), Biografia, Kompozitor Aleksandr Zhurbin: Ofitsial nyi sait (2005). < ru/content/biografy.php>. 73 Tsuker, Both Rock and Symphony, For Russian accounts of the Vocal-Instrumental Ensemble (VIA) phenomenon, see V. K. Yashkin s Vokal no-instrumental nye Ansambli (Moscow: Znanie, 1980); B. P. Sokolovskiy s Samodeyatel nye VIA i diskoteki (Moskva: Profizdat, 1987); and V. Shchëlkin & S. Frolov s Legendy VIA, (Moscow: Grifon, 2007). A fascinating description from within the VIA scene itself, Ariel frontman Valeriy Yarushin s autobiography has also proven very informational: V. Yarushin, Sud ba po imeni Ariel (Moscow: Russkaia nov, 2005). 41

42 42 Fig. 1: Aleksandr Zhurbin in 2010

43 Superstar was already being widely circulated within knowing circles of Soviet musicians. 75 Head of the Leningrad Union of Composers Andrei Petrov who would later use his pull to aid Orpheus premiere brought a recording of the Webber musical back to the USSR and organized a listening session for other composers. Zhurbin found the British rock opera immediately compelling, and even began to learn English after his exposure to it. 76 In dialogue with front-man and guitarist of The Singing Guitars, Anatoliy Vasil ev, the two men agreed on their mutual desire to see something similar done in the USSR. In 1974, Orpheus and Eurydice with his score and a libretto by playwright Yuriy Dimitrin was presented to the band. 77 After some changes in personnel, the producers found their Orpheus in the figure of Al bert Alik Asadullin a young architect from Tatarstan who had already gained a reputation as the best amateur rock singer among faculty music groups upon his arri val in Leningrad. 78 Zhurbin and Vasil ev convinced Asadullin to join The Singing Guitars, and for the next five years he toured with the group. Eurydice was found right within The Singing Guitars in Irina Ponarovskaia, daughter of famous jazz musician Vita liy Ponarovskiy. 79 Fig. 2: Irina Ponarovskaia and Al bert Asadullin as Eurydice and Orpheus 75 See Peter J. Schmelz, Crucifi ed on the Cross of Mass Culture : Late Soviet Genre Politics in Ale xander Zhurbin s Rock Opera Orpheus and Eurydice, Journal of Musicological Research 28.1 (2009): for an account of Soviet reception of Webber s musical, and its effect on Zhurbin s rock opera. Despite its taboo themes, stagings of the work were not consistently banned, and it was widely heard and even performed by groups such as the jazz-rock band Arsenal. 76 Ibid., Orfei i Evridika, Kul turnyi sloi, 5-yi kanal, TRK St. Petersburg, 10 May < ru/video/502622/>. 78 Valery Shchëlkin and Sergey Frolov, Legendy VIA (Moscow: Grifon, 2007), For more biographical details on Irina Ponarovskaia, see her site: 43

44 Orpheus and Eurydice premiered in the summer of 1975 at the Leningrad Estrada Theater (now the Raikin Estrada Theater in St. Petersburg). It was originally marketed as a Song-opera from the German der Song because the term rock caused a predictable problem within the Soviet Ministry of Culture. 80 A rock aesthetic was dampened somewhat, or made more palatable with allusions to Brechtian theatre, where songs are woven into the fabric of the narrative, summarizing and ultimately acting as a moral injunction. 81 The issue was then complicated by other concerns: The theatrical term der Song, originating with the German playwright Berthold Brecht, needs to be understood not just as song, but as a [specific form of] song from the author, during which the actors turn to the audience, breaking the fourth wall. This [combination of techniques] both illuminates the author s subtext and provides commentary for the events on stage. This Brechtian principle found its reflection in Orpheus. 82 According to librettist Yuriy Dimitrin, once censors were informed of this connection to the work of the anti-fascist Brecht, the production could then be considered an artistic success. 83 Although Brecht may have been chosen as a specific figure with which to forward this idea, Zhurbin cites other theatrical genres, including ancient Greece, as containing the rock opera concept. 84 In this way, rock opera was born in the Soviet Union under the cover of more acceptable art forms. Despite any sleight-of-hand, however, the show s immense popularity would make any such quibbling a moot issue. Subsequent projects in the same style were widely referred to in more open terms as rok-opery. Zhurbin himself has been inconsistent over the years in labeling the piece s genre. In retrospect from the twenty-first century, he considers rock opera as a subgenre of the musical in much the same way as Jesus Christ Superstar is considered an example of both today. In a 2011 article for Izvestiya [News], the composer expressed indignation that another piece, Solomennaia shliapka [The Straw Hat] (1974) a cute vaudeville film, yet without any distinguishing characteristics had been labelled the first Soviet musical. 85 Yet initially, Zhurbin was unwilling to refer to Orpheus and Eurydice as either a musical or a rock opera. From our vantage point forty years hence, Zhurbin s production is simultaneously a representative of all of the debated forms a Song-opera, a rock opera, and a musical. However, it wasn t until Raimond Pauls 1976 Sister Carrie, produced in 80 Peter Pchelintsev, Edintsvennyi v Rossii, Rock-opera.ru. n.d. < 81 Ibid. 82 Valery Iashkin, Poiyushchie gitary. Sovetskaia estrada i tsïrk 3 (March 1978), Orfei i Evridika. 84 Aleksandr Zhurbin, Orfei, Evridika, i ya (Moscow: Eksmo, 2006), Aleksandr Zhurbin, Tezisy o muzykle v Rossii, Izvestiya (8 May 2011). 44

45 the somewhat more liberal Baltics, that a Soviet composer willingly and openly labelled his or her work with that title. 86 One stepping-stone between censorship and acceptance was another form of classical narrative: myth. The choice of ancient Greek myth as subject for the USSR s first rock opera was clearly a legitimizing act on the part of its producers. One critic wrote: This is a show about love love that helps an artist keep his soul alive. Not about the kind of love we frequently hear of in estrada: assertive, optimistic, and aggressive even when it seems to be unhappy. Here, however, we have a genuinely lofty and sacrificial love. 87 This idea of thematic purity was a purposeful choice on the composer s part, who pronounced the rock opera s chosen topic entirely chaste and beautiful. 88 Zhurbin s experiment, as it was labelled in press reviews of the time, contained echoes of another canonical experiment, as it were: Monteverdi s 1607 L Orfeo. The early Baroque favola in musica, one of the first surviving operas, moved theatrical music beyond any traditional intermedio position (i.e., between the acts of a play) and into a complete, self-contained musical drama. In some ways, Zhurbin s and Monteverdi s works have more in common than the operatic canon (including Gluck s Orfeo) that lies between them chronologically: both were composed at transitional points in European history, both employed instrumental groups that had the freedom to improvise (Zhurbin s score speaks of adlibbed numbers in the style of the latest hits ), and both had a librettist who adapted to the sociopolitical pressures of the times. 89 In Zhurbin s case, the incorporation of a rock group and contemporary lyrics from Yuriy Dimitrin meant the libretto had to be set in modern times. Subsequently the core myth was updated within the context of a rock singing contest. This allowed rock music to exist within the new opera, but to be safely contained within this plot device. Tsuker sums it up: Rock in Orpheus occupies a sufficiently localized, albeit dramaturgically important place. 90 Other pieces in the opera, as Peter Schmelz notes, were more indebted to the aesthetics of art song, or more likely the Russian romance, than to the pop tunes that were Lloyd Webber s models. 91 Only some formal schemas of the Greek plot remain: the love of its titular characters, together with their subsequent separations and reunions. The original myth ends gruesomely, with Eurydice taken back to Hades and Orpheus torn apart by Maenads, frenzied followers of Dionysus. Monteverdi s librettist, Alessandro Striggio, shies away from Orfeo s death instead having the Maenads berate the hero but leaves his destiny uncertain. In Monteverdi s 1609 score, however, a semi-happy ending prevails 86 See Grabarchuk (2015) for a discussion of Pauls musical, and for an analysis of what other factors might have enabled him to do so. 87 Yuly Smelkov, Liuboviu rozhdaetsya pesnya, Komsomol skaya pravda (29 August 1981). 88 Zhurbin, Orfei, Evridika, i ya, Tsuker, Ibid., Schmelz, 73. See Schmelz s article for a deeper analysis of musical genre and stylistic distinctions in Zhurbin s rock opera. 45

46 as Orpheus is borne up to heaven by Apollo, who encourages him to see Eurydice s like ness in the stars. 92 In Dimitrin s tale, something similar takes place at the end of the opera, as her voice remains with Orpheus as if to represent their eternal spiritual union, while a new couple takes the stage to symbolize a tale of eternal love. Zhurbin and Dimitrin s musical despite any hesitant, lukewarm reactions from the press enjoyed tremendous popularity. In 2003, it entered the Guinness Book of World Records as the longest-running original cast musical (at that time, 2,350 performances had been staged in eight different productions). 93 Even in 1976, despite never having been performed abroad, it garnered the British Musical Award from industry publication Music Week. 94 Looking back on their hard work and surprising success, both composer and librettist reminisce about the burden of daily performances: That had never happened in Russia before. For plays or musicals to run every day was unheard of. Then we started touring. We were sold out for two, even three months. You couldn t even get a friend or your relatives into the hall. But even the show s fantastic popularity couldn t absolve it of ideological sedition. 95 The opera s staging despite that official grumbling in high places got off to a remarkably smooth start, for which Aleksandr Zhurbin could thank aforementioned fellow composer Andrei Petrov. Zhurbin s friend and colleague had intervened on the show s behalf during a meeting: The artistic council convened. Andrei Pavlovich [Petrov], an experienced diplomat, thought that everything depended on who spoke fi rst. He immediately took the fl oor and said: I consider this a huge success. It is a colossal step forward. Our socialist culture has achieved new dimensions. Then he started saying things no one could oppose, especially since he was a member of the Regional Committee [of the Communist Party], chairman of the Composers Union, and so on. After a few of Petrov s comments, I could already see that the officials were somehow deflated. They had wanted to ban the show. [Thanks to Petrov, however], it turned out it to be nothing more than a love story without anything anti-soviet. And so they [the high-ranking bureaucrats] resentfully told us that we had permission. 96 Some problems, however, proved rather stubborn. At a later date, the opera was again denounced, this time as ideologically vicious and aesthetically helpless. 97 Librettist Dimitrin recalls getting a phone call from a ministry connection warning of a commission 92 Mark Ringer, Opera s First Master: The Musical Dramas of Claudio Monteverdi (Newark, N. J.: Amadeus Press, 2006), Irina Vorob eva and Artur Gladyshev, Velikie miuzikly mira (Moscow: Olma-Press, 2002), Ibid. 95 Orfei i Evridika. 96 Ibid. 97 Ibid. 46

47 designed to reach Leningrad and close down Orpheus. Apparently, the Russian Minister of Culture himself Yuriy Melent ev had found something wrong with the piece. Yet at the last minute, Zhurbin and Vasil ev recount in a 2009 interview, the Minister had a chat with an old friend, who happened by good fortune to be an admirer of the show. As a result, the members of the commission received last-minute instructions to support the opera upon their arrival in Leningrad. 98 Fig. 3: Composer Andrei Petrov, who helped support Orpheus and Eurydice s premiere In other words, the first Soviet rock opera came into existence thanks both to a number of chance accidents within the censorship network, and huge public approval. Once official approval was begrudgingly given, the press then had to somehow justify its enormous popularity. Rhetoric was needed to echo an ideological volte-face. Newspapers justifications frequently came in discussions of Soviet theater s power of communication, which unlike the small stage of estrada, allegedly had the capacity to both reach and deeply move observers of all ages. By way of observation, music journalist M. Provorov wrote in 1976: The sound of an electric guitar is very pictorial, textural, and theatrical; not surprisingly, many directors have started using it in their dramas. 99 Slowly yet surely in the mid-1970s, the instrumentation and performance style of the VIA were gradually considered to be in 98 Ibid. 99 M. Provorov, Obratnyi put poterian, Iunost (May 1976),

48 sync with youth culture across the Soviet Union. Orpheus and Eurydice s original director Mark Rozovskiy puts it thus in his discussion of the opera s themes: The youth lifestyle of the 1960s and 70s engendered a contemporary musico-theatrical form. In our show, opera s traditional form is transformed into an energetic and carnivalesque spectacle. And carnival doesn t always mean celebration. Ironic comedy and tra gedy always coexist in carnival, constantly and invisibly flowing into one another. 100 This genuine movement toward a Third Direction particularly its educational potential through operatic tradition meant that as the show went on, press reviews became more positive, acknowledging the hybridization of previously separate genres: We still recognize the VIA ensemble s performance style; it has not changed, but rather been filled with new and more significant content Estrada is usually called a light genre, although neither pathos nor civic themes are alien to it. And now, the modern estrada fan is offered shows that, although composed in this same light genre, are quite serious. That is to say, these shows not only entertain, but also offer an aesthetic education in the direct sense of the word, because for a certain youth demographic (and estrada spectators are predominantly young people), music begins with an estrada song. 101 The song-opera Orpheus and Eurydice the first such experiment on our stage will undoubtedly acquire a noteworthy place in our country s musical theater life. It will also play its role in the creative destiny of The Singing Guitars, and let s hope in the education of Soviet youth, too. 102 It is the elevation of popular music to the Soviet stage that allowed The Singing Guitars to transcend their estrada past, their long-time repertoire of hits, their own selves of yesterday. And the force which elevated them was theater. 103 Opera allegedly shaped and saved rock music even though the latter style was clearly ascending and using opera to gain acceptance. The inclusion of rock within Zhurbin s project was justified by the show s large-scale impact on young audiences: If we remember the fact that estrada is one of the most popular forms of art, and that its audience is comprised of mainly young people, then we understand that the price of Orpheus and Eurydice s success is especially high. This play invites spectators to experience thoughts and feelings to which theatergoers are rarely accustomed Ibid., Yuri Klimov, Chto na estrade? Pravda 197 (15 July 1976): Poyushchie Gitary staviat operu, Smena 173 (25 July 1975): Provorov, Smelkov. 48

49 Such a perspective demonstrates the spreading reappraisals of popular music instigated by Zhurbin s Orfeus and Eurydice. 105 The authorities and state-run media increasingly concurred with one another, and by 1980, the rock opera s creators had been given permission to record. A troublesome stage show was allowed to create a permanent, endlessly replicable document of itself. The resulting double album sold over a million copies, surviving even the demise of the group who started it all The Singing Guitars. 106 Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the show was revived in 1999 by Vladimir Podgorodinskiy, the founder of the Rock Opera Theater. This St. Petersburg (initially Leningrad) organization was founded in 1975 simultaneously with the genesis of Orpheus and Eurydice. Its mission was to serve as an antipode to classical opera, a theater by young people for young people. 107 The R.O.T. has, since that time, enjoyed productive relationships with contemporary Russian composers as well as established figures of the Soviet past, such as Andrei Petrov, Zhurbin s influential contemporary who helped set the rock opera on a course toward approval in the mid-1970s. Needless to say, not everyone was convinced of the validity of combining estrada with art music. Avant-garde composer Edison Denisov expressed his displeasure with this trend in the mid-1980s: There isn t any third direction! That is a false movement which has gathered around itself people incapable of writing good estrada, jazz, or rock music. And because they can t compose any of them, they ve chosen something in the middle. 108 Ticket sales and popularity, however, told a different story. Aleksandr Zhurbin s philosophy, despite these enduring hassles, would always remain more inclusive: Some people think that rock music is something of a lower order; they insist that a serious composer would never engage with it. I think that s said out of ignorance. 109 In the same spirit, Zhurbin is remembered today as one of the first composers to endorse and work toward that elusive Third Direction. Ultimately, this opera embodies the shifting nature of Soviet taste, both musical and otherwise, both official and unofficial, and both young and old, during the final decades of the USSR. 110 Once that door was open, others drew inspiration from Zhurbin s foray into generic synthesis in realms where no Soviet composer had gone before. 105 Schmelz, Orfei i Evridika. 107 More information about the theater can be found at Тatiana А. Kurysheva, Muzykal naia zhurnalistika i muzykal naia kritika (St. Petersburg: Vlados Press, 2007). Accessed 31 July 2015 at muzy kalnaya_zhurnalistika_i_muzykalnaya_kritika_uchebnoe_posobie-read.html. 109 Provorov, Schmelz,

50 Splendor and Death One such fellow composer of equally intrepid interest was Aleksei Rybnikov. Born on July 17, 1945 only a few weeks before Zhurbin he remains a direct peer, compatriot, and product of the same cultural environment. Rybnikov was a precocious child of two creative parents, and wrote his first pieces for piano at age eight. Like many of the composers discussed so far, he attended the Moscow Conservatory and studied with Aram Khachaturian, going on to teach in the Conservatory s composition department. In 1979, he was recognized as the most popular Soviet composer of the year. 111 Another classically trained member of the Third Direction, he is remembered today for his film and stage music, including the two rock operas The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta (1976) and Juno and Avos (1979). 112 Fig. 4: Aleksei Rybnikov in the studio We turn now to the former, one of the very first Soviet rock operas along with Orpheus and Eurydice. Whereas Zhurbin s work was explicitly inspired by Andrew Lloyd Webber s 111 Rybnikov Aleksei L vovich, Muzhdunarodnyi ob edinënnyi biografi cheskiy tsentr, n.d., accessed 7 November < rybnikoval&catid=6:music&itemid=29>. 112 As Peter Schmelz mentions regarding Rybnikov s later opera: Alexei Rybnikov s Juno and Avos (Iunona i Avos, 1981; libretto by Andrei Voznesenskiy) is often mentioned as the first instance of the genre in the USSR, although it postdates Zhurbin s composition and also postdates Rybnikov s earlier rock opera, The Splendor and Death of Joaquin Murieta (Zvezda i smert Khoakina Mur ety, 1976; libretto by Pablo Neruda). See S. Frederick Starr, Red and Hot: The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union , With a New Chapter on the Final Years (New York: Limelight Editions, 1994), 374 n. 78; Alexei Rybnikov, Juno & Avos, Melodiya CD, (1996; the back cover proclaims it as Russia s First Rock Musical ); and Carol Pratl, A Russian Rock Opera: Junon and Avos, The Drama Review 28/2 (1984):

51 Jesus Christ Superstar and conceived within an incipient rock music environment, Joaquin was first conceived as a stage show. Film and stage director Mark Zakharov, who was appointed artistic director of the Moscow Lenkom Theater in 1973 (and still holds the position), had been urged by Vladimir Panchenko the director of the Culture Sector of the Communist Central Committee to stage an ideologically flashy action show. 113 General Pinochet s recent coup d état and the death of Chilean poet Pablo Neruda mere days after the overthrow influenced Zakharov s thinking, and he chose Neruda s 1967 poetic play an insurrectionary cantata as the basis for such an endeavor. 114 The director s intention was to somehow adapt Neruda s free verse, which is beautiful but somehow not ours. 115 For a libretto, he turned to poet Pavel Grushko, who had translated Neruda s play in 1971 for publication in the journal Foreign Literature. This introduced some major changes into the story including altering the title from The Splendor and Death of Joa quin Murieta (Fulgor y Muerte de Joaquin Murieta) to The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta (Звезда и смерть Хоакина Мурьеты). Grushko recounts this titular change as not posing too much of a boon in the [original] translation of the cantata, but reports that it really helped when transitioning to a libretto. 116 It allowed for the creation of eponymous cha racters of Star and Death, played respectively by the same actors who played Teresa and the perverse sideshow announcer who opens the show. The most crucial change, however, was pairing Neruda s text with the popular VIA Araks which by this time had garnered a reputation for covering songs by Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple, and Santana. 117 Other popular ensembles Rok-Atel e and Integral joined the soundtrack of the rock opera s 1982 film version. As for the historical figure of Joaquin Muerieta, it is entirely possible he never actually existed. Considered the Robin Hood of the California Gold Rush, Murieta real or otherwise captured the imagination of artists starting with the Native American novelist John Rollin Ridge in the mid-nineteenth century and continuing with Twentieth Century Fox in the late 1960s. Ridge, writing under his Cherokee name Yellow Bird, published The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta: The Celebrated California Bandit in According to Ridge scholars, this novel the first published by a Native American, and one of the first written in California was intended as a work of fiction, yet taken as documentary truth by historians of the time. 118 Due to its mass popularity and the low social status of 113 Pavel Grushko, Khoakin Murieta dvadtsat let spustia, Ogonëk (9 June 1996). 114 Pablo Neruda, Splendor and Death of Joaquin Murieta, trans. Ben Belitt (New York, NY: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc, 1972), viii. 115 Grushko. 116 M. Tereshchenko, Vsë perevod, dazhe rech s iazyka myslei, Liudi (2 February 2002). 117 For a history of the ensemble, see their site: For more information on the Native American author, see James W. Parins, John Rolling Ridge: His Life and Works (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2004). 51

52 its author, the book suffered from widespread plagiarism, which robbed John Rollin Ridge of any deserved income yet helped spread the tale of Joaquin Murieta. The legendary bandit was allegedly born in northwestern Mexico and went to California to join the Gold Rush in Ridge s fictional account has Murieta and his family treated poorly by racist miners jealous of his success, who rape the hero s wife and horsewhip him. 119 Other sources tell of Murieta s paramilitary band, made up of friends and relatives who illegally traded horses with Mexico and helped Murieta avenge his attackers. 120 Most agree on the fact that he was as highwayman who attacked both wagon trains and settlers with his posse. In 1853, a group of California State Rangers formed specifically to deal with Gold Country outlaw gangs came upon Murieta s gang, the Five Joaquins, and killed him. The California State Military Museum tells of the Rangers decapitating Murieta and displaying his head throughout the state, along with the threefingered hand of an accomplice. 121 Nonetheless, newspapers of the time cast aspersions on the official identification of the head as Murieta. 122 In short, a cattle thief with that name probably lived during the 1850s, but there is no consensus on whether he was Chilean or Mexican; an ethical Robin Hood or a manic beast. What is clear, however, is that the story was compelling to writers and readers alike. Neruda took creative license with an already muddled tale. His 1967 play opens with a foreword describing the approach: These pages are not concerned with confirming history or validating fantasy. On the contrary. Between the fantasy and the history of things, I have interposed my personal identity. Around it whirls a maelstrom of fire and blood, avarice, outrage, and insurrection. 123 The cantata begins with a choir, telling of the renowned bandit Joaquin Murieta, a bold Chilean whose spirit haunts California to this day. We then find ourselves in the port of Valparaíso, where the aforementioned Three-Fingered Jack persuades a customs agent to come to California with them in search of gold. During the trip, Joaquin weds his beloved Teresa although at this point in Neruda s cantata, they are only silhouettes on the stage. Upon Teresa s arrival, she is raped and then murdered by local rangers who proclaim the White race to be superior to all others. Joaquin returns home and promises revenge; from that day forth, he will live as a bandit. He is ultimately captured and beheaded. The play ends with Murieta s severed head lamenting his love, death, and the passing of time. 119 John Rollin Ridge, The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta, The Celebrated California Bandit (Fresno, CA: Three Rocks Research, 2005). 120 Frank Latta, Joaquín Murrieta and His Horse Gangs (Exeter, CA: Bear State Books, 1980). 121 For more information on the California State Rangers and Murieta, see (under California Militia and National Guard Units, then California State Rangers). 122 The Los Angeles Fruit Crops The Head of Joaquin Muriatta not taken A strange story! The Daily Alta 4.23 (23 August 1853): Neruda, vii. 52

53 Like other fictional depictions of Murieta, Neruda s grants both depth and feeling to the title character while adding a clear authorial presence (in fact, the disembodied voice opening the prologue and narrating throughout is labelled The Poet s Voice ). Indeed, the translator s notation highlights Neruda s presence: The poet is constantly present in his drama of splendor and death, meditating the occasion of his poem, appraising the morality of his hagiography of violence, vindicating the banditry of his hero, mediating, justifying, disclosing: the theophanic god-in-the-machine of his contrivance. 124 In the same way, the creators of this Russian rock opera left their own indelible mark on the legend of a charismatic bandit. The pitiful story expressed in Neruda s poetry and amplified by Aleksei Rybnikov s heavy soundtrack became downright grim in its Soviet guise. He recalls: I decided to do The Star and Death as symphonic rock, a combination of big symphonic form and rock rhythms. 125 Much like the creators of Orpheus and Eurydice, so the composer of Joaquin Murieta was also partaking in the aesthetic and philosophical aim of the Third Direction movement. Fig. 5: Aleksei Rybnikov (2 nd row, 4 th from L), director Mark Zakharov (2 nd row, 4 th from R), VIA Araks, and other performers 124 Neruda, xvii. 125 L. Guzeeva, Yunona proshla rify na Avos, Novaya Gazeta (9 July 2001). 53

54 Although there were some similarities with Zhurbin s narratively contained version of rock n roll, Joaquin Murieta went a little further in its embracing of rock onstage. As Peter Schmelz breaks it down: Jesus Christ Superstar was hybrid on many levels: low/high, political/apolitical, religious/cri - tical of religion, rock/classical, entertainment / art. Zhurbin s Orpheus and Eurydice was a diluted version of this hybridity. It was seen as provocative by its composer, its listeners, and many (but not all) Soviet officials, but its musical style was relatively orthodox for 1975, especially since it featured one of the better-known officially sponsored VIAs. 126 Rybnikov s piece exhibited a less-watered down hybridity that allied it more closely with Western models such as Jesus Christ Superstar. Where Orpheus and Eurydice kept the rock aesthetic paired with clear classical signifiers such as the running scales that each singer performs while warming up for the contest, Joaquin Murieta expanded its range of appropriate use. 127 Through an examination of musical style and narrative in this quasi-western rock opera, I hope to demonstrate how Rybnikov continued the development of the Soviet rock opera genre while simultaneously taking another step toward the Third Direction. 128 The opera begins with a cabaret-style announcer, who advertises the spectacle of Murieta s head and the three-fingered hand of his accomplice, on display at this macabre sideshow. In the 1982 film version of the piece, the announcer s mask is stripped off to reveal the unsmiling face of Death a visage the viewer doesn t yet recognize, but will come to associate with everything gruesome and horrible by the end of the production. 129 At 1:50, the credits launch into an action theme with a serious, driving affect and instrumentation (frantic percussion reminiscent of Mitch Mitchell circa Jimi Hendrix Experience era, heavily distorted ascending electric guitar riff, intermittent brass punctuation). Such a musical opening warns of dark things to come. A few minutes later (at 3:38), the driving assemblage of riffs lets up and melts away into what I call the Chile theme. This style of music simultaneously indexes a folk aesthe tic complete with strummed strings, lively (although not overly wild) percussion, and a ballad feel as well as stereotypical South American signifiers such as the pan flute. The Chile theme grounds any action taking place in the homeland, and also serves to call up a sense of nostalgia for home later in the opera. The Chileans relationship to their homeland is a complex one, as witnessed by Song of the Organ Grinder (beginning at approximately 8:00 in the film version). This creepy, carnivalesque tune speeding up cartoonishly as it goes relays that we ve been taught since childhood that there is no 126 Schmelz, Ibid., For work explicitly naming Aleksei Rybnikov as one of the pioneers of the Third Direction, see Stetsiuk & Abakumov (2005), as well as Kurysheva (2007). 129 Zvezda i smert Khoakina Mur ety. Dir. V. Grammatikov. Tsentral naia kinostudia detskikh i yunosheskikh fil mov imeni M. Gork ogo, Yaltinskiy filial, The film can be viewed at youtube.com/watch?v=1swia0p4oaq. 54

55 country more wonderful than Chile, and lists the country s many charms, yet finishing each list by declaring that there is no life to be had there. The first diegetic appearance of rock music, aside from the overture, comes with the appearance of the capitalistic sirens who entice the Chileans with promises of gold. This is similar to Orpheus, where Zhurbin gives conventional rock songs, with bluesy electric guitar solos to indicate their authenticity to the other participants of the singing contest. 130 Their repetition of the word gold [золото] acts as a rhythmic driver and compels its listeners to pack up and head to California. When Joaquin and his friends are talking alone after this barrage, however, he does not mimic their obsession with gold, but rather sings a simple pop ode à la Andrew Lloyd Webber s Everything s All Right to the things that really matter a house by a pond a garden with cherry trees and roosters singing at dawn. Thus it is established from the get-go that while folk music belongs to the Chileans, and affable pop to Joaquin and his Soviet-approved values, rock music is the provenance of capitalists. The most striking and systematic use of rock in Joaquin Murieta, however, comes inextricably tied to the character of Death. After the appearance of Joaquin s Star his guiding force and, it seems, guardian angel we see and hear Death for the first time (around 22:30 in the film version). In contrast to the Star s tuneful aria, his almost-spoken vocal delivery has no real melody to speak of and is reminiscent of the lower ranges of Capitan Beefheart s gravelly tessitura. The lyrics warn of the dangers of following the Star without looking under their feet, foreshadowing that the path to the Star is littered with hundreds of heads. His rhythmic repetition at the ends of certain phrases ( в пропасть упадет, в пропасть упадет! ) recalls Jesus Christ Superstar s accentual irregularities (as in on the words Nazareth, your famous son in Judas s opening number, Heaven on Their Minds ). Each time Death appears subsequently, his tuneless assertions are underscored with the same frantic percussion and driving bass ostinato. Each of his appearances is also marked by some sort of vocal anomaly, whether it is the funk/soul-style grunts in Death s Aria or the distorted, rhythmical hee-hee-hee, ha-ha-ha, ho-ho-ho in the aforementioned Budet zavarukha, where he predicts a time when son and daughter will fight and mother will rob daughter. Although such vocal manipulations can occur as borderline comical, such as in VIA Ariel s Komnata smekha, or surrealistic, such as in the Beatles I am the Walrus, in this context the distortion takes on a morbid affect that is not subject to human rules. 131 The narrative apex of the opera, Teresa s rape and murder, is marked by the boogiewoogie tinkling accompanying the white gold-panners unexpected appearance in her home. The juxtaposition of this innocuous, almost good-natured music, and the horrible crime that is to occur ( I ll need help for this business We ll help you, get in line, boys! ) comes off as jarring and unsettling, eventually giving way to a hectic rock beat reminiscent of a Led Zeppelin jam. As Joaquin returns and vows revenge, mourning Teresa s death, 130 Schmelz, Ariel, Komnata smekha, Kazhdyi den tvoi, Melodiya, The song can be heard here:

56 singing stops in the show altogether and harsh, driving rock takes over. In the shoot-out that follows (Chileans vs. Americans), the distorted ascending guitar riff from the overture returns again, identifying itself as the revenge motif. As opposed to the mixed-meter deviations of Death s songs, Joaquin s revenge music is in 4/4, stable and grounded in its destructive certainty. Interspersed with quiet, poignant moments of the Chile theme, we see Joaquin s band slaughtering the Americans and vice-versa to this unrelenting beat. After the bloodbath calms down, we hear Death s final aria (again in an irregular rhythm), where he breaks his previous monotone declamation style and sings of red fountains of blood in a dramatic, soaring voice more reminiscent of Webber s Judas than any Soviet estrada performer. This is not the golden voice of Orpheus; it is the hoarse screech of Death and in some ways, it gets the final word. Fig. 6: L-R, Aleksei Rybnikov, director Mark Zakharov, poet Andrei Vozensenskiy, and performer Nikolai Karachentsov in 1981 Despite the neat good Chileans versus bad Americans form of the story, as well as Rybnikov s avoidance of the term rock opera, Joaquin Murieta still encountered bureaucratic meddling that reminds us of Zhurbin s experience. Librettist Pavel Grushko recalls the show being banned a mythological eleven times! before finally premiering in May 1976 at the Lenkom Theater. 132 Yet the public had already been primed by seeing 132 Guzeeva. 56

57 rock opera on the Soviet stage, and Joaquin grew to enjoy enormous popularity, just like its predecessor. As we have seen, a film version was also authorized, and the Rybnikov/ Zakharov creative team went on to produce another this time thematically Russian rock opera based on the work of Soviet poet Andrei Voznesenskiy in the early 1980s. Their chosen style proved to be enduringly popular once initial obstacles were overcome. Even despite its potential taboos, ultimately, a scripted opera was less unpredictable than a rock concert, and therefore easier to restrict within moral and ideological bounds. 133 Taking this into account, Soviet rock opera was very much a product of its environment, and grew to be viewed as a contribution to music history under the aegis of the Third Direction. Conclusion Rock opera s appearance in the Soviet era of Stagnation may still seem somewhat anomalous. But as St. Petersburg historian/journalist Lev Lurie put it: The year 1975 was a safe, calm time. Oil prices were high. Salaries were increasing. The state was building houses, apartments, and metro stations The powers that be allowed previously forbidden things to come to fruition. The appearance of the rock opera Orpheus and Eurydice in this leisurely, yet stagnant environment was no accident. 134 Yet as we have seen in our outline of the show s history, even in this relatively peaceful time, composers and producers were obliged to carefully navigate the system preferably with friends in high places in order to achieve anything genuinely novel. Russian musicologist A. Tsuker defines rock opera as a fundamentally multifaceted phenomenon: The principle of poly functions on all of [rock opera] s levels, allowing us to speak of the polyvalence of its plots, dramaturgy, genre status, and stylistic features. 135 This becomes immediately evident in composers and librettists traditional choices of historical source (such as Greek myth, for example) as a rock opera s subject. Tsuker further explains the inherent duality in such decision-making, which allows for a universal appeal, yet is couched in modern language. He cites Jesus Christ Superstar as an archetypal example: On one hand, the authors turn to an evangelical plot allowed them to widen the range of associations, to imbue the narrative with high tragedy, and raise it to a level of eternal, universal impact which was also aided by parallels with Bach s Passions. On the other hand, they seriously modernized the known story, bringing it as close as possible to the understandings and values of modern man. This [rock] opera reflected the spiritual search 133 Yngvar Steinholt, Rock in the Reservation: Songs from the Leningrad Rock Club (Larchmont, NY: The Mass Media Music Scholars Press, 2005), Orfei i Evridika. 135 Tsuker,

58 of the Western youth in the 60s and 70s, carrying hippy ideology, and evoking very direct parallels with the social atmosphere and specific ideas of that movement No matter which rock opera we examine, we see everywhere a similar parallelism and duality of content, connecting within itself the universe and daily life, the philosophical and the social, balancing between modernized eternity and the symbolic present. 136 This same state of affairs can be seen in both of the operas examined in this article. Zhurbin s Orpheus is a modern rock singer dealing with the complexity of twentiethcentury life yet he faces the age-old question of fame s ultimate price. Even in Rybnikov s historical show, the echoes of Joaquin Murieta s tragic fate are preserved within folk memory and embellished with fantasy, and have for a long time embodied eternal human values. 137 In Rybnikov s rock opera even more clearly than in Neruda s cantata heroic personalities are larger than life. The [original] fable is stripped of many details and specifics, concrete circumstances are generalized, and the symbolic personages of Star and Death come out, giving the flavor of Greek myth/opera. 138 This is where theater, estrada, and rock meet, each lending its most powerful qualities to affect the Soviet observer in previously unknown ways. In a retrospective discussion of Soviet rock music during the late 1980s, Rybnikov divided the evolution of Russian rock into three stages. The first was amateur and largely derivative, when Russian beat-groups sang in English and took their cues from foreign bands such as The Beatles. The next stage both summarized those early efforts, and turned toward something more individualistic, such as the folk-rock of VIAs Ariel and Pesniary. The third and final phase which coincided with the composer s post-perestroika interview marked a time when it was no longer necessary to speak of rock music, but of rock poetry and rock thinking, perhaps if the word rock means anything at all. 139 He goes on to explain: After all, more often than not, we take [the word rock ] to mean something incisive, catchy, and directly affecting the soul of your peers. It means sharing our pain openly, while breaking the framework and blinders of [state-run] radio and television, which have severely limited what is possible. 140 This definition of rock as something with a particular communicative intention (rather than any specific technical qualifications) rings especially true in Soviet society. When officials objected to the title rock opera, it was the presumed political intent behind such terms that shocked more than any aesthetic gestures. This is why the Third Direction 136 Ibid., Ibid., Ibid. 139 Aleksei Rybnikov, Rok-muzyka: prodolzhenie razgovora, Muzykal naia zhizn 13 (6 May 1987): Ibid. 58

59 aimed to reconcile not only disparate musical trajectories, but their disparate audiences as well. Ultimately, rock opera as it is understood in the West was unexpectedly well suited to the USSR because of the Soviet penchant for theatricalization, as well as the Third Direction s preoccupation with blending popular and classical styles. This put estrada songwriters such as Zhurbin and Rybnikov in a unique position classically trained composers who undertook the socially responsible task of writing popular music in order to both educate and enlighten the youth of their society. Zhurbin s first effort opened the door for more and more reassessment of popular music under the aegis of late socialism. As Peter Schmelz writes, Orpheus and Eurydice becomes an ideal indicator of both late socialism and late socialist realism; its reception illustrates the cracks that were beginning to appear and were often allowed to appear in official orthodoxy. 141 Joaquin Murieta followed in its footsteps, increasing the potential musical provocations. The mid- to late 1970s were a unique time in Soviet history: a period of trepidation, yet also of creative openings. The experiences of Rybnikov and Zhurbin help to show how artistic agents could operate under Brezhnev, claiming both authorship and agency, in liminal states between the official and unofficial. Bridging Deep Chasms: The Soviet Third Direction in Aleksei Rybnikov s Rock Opera The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta Abstract Rock opera in the Soviet Union was a phenomenon with obviously Western roots yet inextricably tied up with and enabled by homegrown players and policies. Aleksei Rybnikov s The Star and Death of Joaquin Murieta (1976) is an early example of the merging of aca demic and popular music desired by the Composers Union. An examination of the genesis, production, and reception of this Soviet rock opera will shed light on the philosophical and compositional movement called The Third Direction and why it was considered desirable. Překlenutí hlubokých propastí: Sovětský Třetí proud v opeře Zvezda i smert Khoakina Mur ety skladatele Alexeje Rybnikova Abstrakt Přestože je rocková opera spojována zejména s autory západní provenience, uvedený žánr významným způsobem zasáhl rovněž do tvorby skladatelů v Sovětském svazu. Dílo 141 Schmelz,

60 Alexeje Rybnikova Zvezda i smert Khoakina Mur ety (1976) je jedním z prvních příkladů spojení akademické a populární hudby v dané zemi; spojení, které odpovídalo dobovým požadavkům instituce Svazu skladatelů. Reflexe vzniku, produkce a recepce uvedeného díla objasní filozofická a kompoziční východiska hnutí označovaného jako Třetí proud, rovněž důvody ofi ciální poptávky hudby tohoto typu sovětskými kulturně politickými institucemi. Keywords Estrada; Pablo Neruda; rock; rock opera; popular composers; Russia; Rybnikov; Soviet Union; theater; Third Direction. Klíčová slova Estráda; Pablo Neruda; rock; rocková opera; populární skladatelé; Rusko; Rybnikov; Sovětský svaz; divadlo; Třetí proud. 60

61 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 A Musical Analysis of Mythical Thought in the Work of Claude Lévi-Strauss David Kozel Introduction The systematic set of ideas concerning the forms of relationships between the myths of primitive societies and music which can be found in the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss ( ) is an essential and well-known part of the legacy he left behind through his influence on scientific discourse and the diversification of the humanities over the course of the second half of the 20 th century. A number of authors have apparently had and continue to have issues with the integral acceptance of the musical component of Strauss s structural anthropology, irrespective of their competence to judge this aspect without any links to their association with the anthropological or musicological communities. As a result, although the musical analogy appears to be an aesthetically uplifting and tempting method for the serious study of mythology in non-european cultures, it also seems to be somewhat inappropriate and superfluous. The application of the principles of archaic mythical thought to contemporary music and categories of musical works with connotations of European culture may indeed be viewed as an amusing commentary with a hermeneutic after-taste, as they are not part of the process of exploring the phenomenon of music which has a clearly and academically defined tradition and, at most, take on the semblance of a colourful decoration. With the unavoidable passage of time and in spite of the frequently justified concerns of generalisation and vagueness, it is possible to note overlaps from both sides. These are the forced result of not only the methodological links between the structural analysis of mythology and music, but also due to a terminological affinity. In the case of Lévi-Strauss, the analytical use of music as a tool for exploring mythology is obviously rooted in his interest in European art music and its structural characteristics. One might eve argue that he was greatly (eruditely) fascinated by this music genre even beyond the scope of this anthropological focus. At the end of The Naked Man, Lévi-Strauss even reveals the personal level of his motivation, when he states that his written tetralogy was an attempt to compensate for his inability to compose by creating the 61

62 negative of a symphony, which some future composer will hopefully be able to convert into its positive musical equivalent: [ ] I have tried to construct with meanings a composition comparable to those that music creates with sounds [ ]. 142 The inclusion of music in anthropological methodology is not, however, random or superficial; it indicates the deeper roots of the author s theses within the comprehensive whole of anthropological theories (structuralism), even with the risk that these beliefs may be questioned. The ontological links between mythology and music are pointed out by, for example, Eric Prieto: Music interests Lévi-Strauss as a model for myth not only because he sees in it a clear justification for the ontological premises of structuralism as a whole [ ]. 143 References to music are interwoven within the majority of Lévi-Strauss s most important written works, which provides another indication of his continuous contemplation of the musicalisation of mythology. Mention should fi rst be made of his initial study The Structural Study of Myth (1955) which includes an analysis of the Oedipus myth, using the reading of this myth as an orchestral score with a linguistic approach. A partial, unfinished version of Lévi-Strauss s theory is also included in his Anthropologie structurale from 1958 (hereinafter referred to by its English title: Structural Anthropology). The most extensive methodological links in relation to music may be found in his tetralogy Mythologiques I IV from the 1960s and early 1970s, which is focused specifically on North and South American mythology and consists of the following volumes: Le Cru et le cuit (1964, The Raw and the Cooked), Du miel aux cendres (1966, From Honey to Ashes), L Origine des manières de table (1968, The Origin of Table Manners), and L Homme nu (1971, The Naked Man). In the introductory Overture chapter of The Raw and the Cooked, Lévi-Strauss s focus on music is made clear by his reference to Wagner s tetralogy. The remaining chapters, also named according to musical forms from European art music, are yet another way in which the musical structure of his work is reflected in relation to his selected key myth from the Bororo tribe from central Brazil and its transformational relationship to other myths, both far and near. In the next two volumes of his Mythologiques tetralogy, Lévi-Strauss s musical approach is immediately present only in the way the text and the myths themselves are structured and conceived. However, it once again resounds in its full glory, with some revisions to his initial ideas, in the closing Finale chapter of The Naked Man. Lévi-Strauss perceives his Mythologiques cycle as a myth about mythology; it presents a code to understanding mythology that is not external to the myths, but is structurally related to them. His work imitates the movement of mythical thought through references to the past and to what is different. When creating this meta-language for analysing myths, the essential basis is the concept of language as the primary code, myth as the secondary code, while the book itself represents the third level which ensures the 142 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man, Mythologiques vol. 4 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), Eric Prieto, Listening In. Music, Mind and the Modernist Narrative (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002),

63 mutual transferability of the myths amongst themselves. 144 Another relevant work is the chapter Myth and Music from the publication entitled Myth and Meaning (1978, a cycle of broadcast lectures), in which Lévi-Strauss summarises his basic ideas (particularly the Finale chapter) and supplements them with, amongst other things, an interpretation of Richard Wagner s mythological motifs. 145 This study focuses on selected topics from the investigated relationships between myt hology and music, with a specific emphasis placed on methodologically classifying them into thematic areas according to their characteristics, even though the individual categories are not mutually permeable. The specifi ed process can be perceived as the interpretation of text with a clearly defined musicological foundation, as well as an effort to summarise and draw attention to simulative moments in mythical thought concerning music and musical thought sui generis. To start with, it can be stated that these thematic areas form different levels associated with the individual structural homologies of mythology and music, the methodological tools used to analyse myths with the help of music, the principles governing the styles and forms in the development of European art music and composed poetry. The fact that some of Lévi-Strauss s theories are questioned occurs specifically because there is no differentiation between the various levels that have been outlined. The purpose of this study is not to create any new schema or rigid classification system, but rather to define frameworks for the individual areas, which I am convinced represent a more useful and purposeful environment for their interpretation and their further inclusion in the theoretical and historical directions of musicology, making it possible to take into account other disciplines (philosophy, religious studies, sociology and others) Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Mythologiques, vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), Claude Lévi-Strauss, Myth and Music, in Myth and Meaning (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), Other works are cited further in the text. The study also refers to the following works: Tristes Tropiques (1955, The Sad Tropics, with references to Igor Stravinsky s Les noces); Regarder, écouter, lire (1993, Look, Listen, Read, references to Jean-Philippe Rameau s theory of musical harmony); The View From Afar (1992, reflections on Richard Wagner s Der Ring des Nibelungen); and others. 146 Jean Jacques Nattiez points out the one-sided perspective of philosophers and musicologists with regard to Lévi-Strauss s musical motifs: But philosophers and musicians have often discussed Lévi-Strauss s proposals in terms of their own disciplines, without really examining the underlying motivations that drive his anthropology into the arms of music. Jean Jacques Nattiez, The Battle of Chronos and Orpheus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004),

64 Structuralist Perspective of Myth and Music Lévi-Strauss s analysis of myth is based on empirical categories (e.g., the raw and the cooked, the fresh and the decayed, the male and the female, up and down, etc.), aimed at abstract concepts and linking them into propositions. Within these categories, it is possible to overcome internally inherent contradictions when they are broken down to the level of symbols. As a result of its rational organisation of sensory experience, music (particularly instrumental music with the absence of voice, which is linked to language in spite of its musical nature) is, as compared to painting, 147 closer to myth, as it lies between logical thinking and aesthetic perception. This uncovers the logic hidden within the sensory qualities of myth and musical works in relation not only to abstract concepts of existence, but also to emotionality: [ ] a musical work is a sound system capable of inducing meanings in the mind of the listener. 148 The analysis of myth through the use of music is carried out at the level of the methodological system. It takes place the most often, however, at the metaphoric, homologous, or isometric level. Musical structures are also applicable because, according to Lévi-Strauss, music is able to overcome the aforementioned binary oppositions, which form the basic principle of mythical thought and language the essence of human thought as it exists in their unconscious structures. 149 Myth and music are instruments that overcome these oppositions by making up for the lack of logic. In his work, Lévi-Strauss demonstrates the basic principles of how myth and music are structured. This includes, for example, transformation, repetition, recurrence, imitation and transposition. Although the meaning of these concepts is primarily perceived as logico-mathematical, their proximity to musical terminology and thematic work with musical thought is apparent. In the case of Lévi-Strauss, the musical analysis of myth is, in addition to sociological and ethnological theories, based on the concepts of structural linguistics defined by Ferdinand de Saussure, the linguistics of Roman Jakobson, and the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, as they are applied to other cultural spheres. Myth and music are viewed from the perspective of language in order to highlight their specificity. Although the methodological inclusion of music in Mythologiques is independent of other aspects, its relationship to language is always taken into account. 150 In order to understand mythology, it must always be viewed from the perspective of both music as well as language. Lévi-Strauss defi nes four fields of structural studies: mathematical demonstration, natural languages, musical works and myths. Whilst mathematical models, as the direct 147 Compare Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man, Compare Ino Rossi, The Unconscious in the Anthropology of Claude Lévi-Strauss, American Anthropologist, New Series 75, No. 1 (1973): Compare Robert Launay, Myth and Music: the Musical Epigraphs to the Raw and the Cooked, in Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. 7 (Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2011),

65 opposite of language, are abstract, language constitutes meaning and sound (the phonetic aspects). Myths are primarily founded on meaning and the phonetic aspects are less significant because myth, as compared to poetry, is transformable within its own system, i.e., it is structurally translatable without any significant impact on its significance. Lévi-Strauss argues that music is based on sound but separated from meaning, and, therefore, we have a natural tendency to provide it with meaning. Music is infinitely translatable only to other music within its own closed system; it is unmediated and has a unique, purely musical, structure. 151 Lévi-Strauss goes on to describe the process of the creation of myth and music. Over the course of development, although music became separate from language it retained its formal structure; it takes sound from speech. Myth separated from language to the benefit of meaning. 152 Looking at it from a different perspective, Lévi-Strauss provides evidence of the insurmountable differences in the relationship structure of language myth music. Whilst in the case of language, its constitutive elements are phonemes, which are combined in different ways to create different meanings, in music the basic element is a tone. An isolated tone lacks meaning (although this statement is subject to dispute), but, when combined with other tones, it creates music, allowing us to speak of tonemes. Both language and music may subsequently be compared from the perspective of structure. In the case of language, phonemes are joined together to create words from which sentences are made. As far as music is concerned, the level of words is missing, as it is the individual tones that are combined to form a musical sentence using a melodic phrase. In myth, there are no constitutive phonemes and the basic element is the word (which is absent in the case of music); however, in myth, as compared to music, there is no equivalent of a phoneme. In other words, in all cases there is one level missing. 153 The process of myth analysis always remains unfinished (Lévi-Strauss argues that it is never-ending) due to the continuous breaking down of motifs. Divergence of sequences and themes is a fundamental characteristic of mythological thought [ ]. 154 This processuality may also be seen elsewhere within the context of interpreting musical and mythical communication. The actual composition process may itself be considered mythical, since, as in the case of myth, it is founded on consistent confrontation, references, and the transformation of other musical structures either the composer s own or those ta ken from past and present music. According to our author, the composer must carry out this confrontation in order to create an originally structured theme. 155 The relationship between the mythical communication process and music is also present in the process of negating past tradition as a stimulus to create new forms of musical expression. 151 The idea of the non-transformability of musical and mythical expression may also be found in the work of Carl Kerényi. Carl Kerényi, Prolegomena, in Carl Gustav Jung and Carl Kerényi, The Scien ce of Mythology (London: Routledge, 2002), Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Myth and Music, Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man,

66 Lévi-Strauss draws attention to the anonymity of myth and places it within the context of music: Myths are anonymous: from the moment they are seen as myths, and whatever their real origins, they exist only as elements embodied in a tradition. 156 At the time a myth is told, the communication of this myth comes as if out of nowhere, supporting its supernatural origin. This anonymity is compared to our lack of knowledge about the spiritual conditions involved in musical creation. Music specifically combines that which is understandable but, at the same time, untranslatable. As is aptly noted, the majority of people are able to understand music, however, only a very few are able to produce it. As a result, composers are compared to gods: [ ] the musical creator is a being comparable to the gods, and music itself the supreme mystery of the science of man, a mystery that all the various disciplines come up against and which holds the key to their progress. 157 The emphasis traditionally placed by structuralists on the role of the creator as compared to the role of recipient is, however, a relatively equivalent assessment of the relationship between composer and listener. Listeners have space open to receive music; they are the creators of the negative image of the composer s creation. The co-participation that exists between a music composer and a music listener takes place at the intellectual and sensory levels. 158 In the case of myth and music, there is even a reversal in the roles of broadcaster and recipient. Thus the myth and the musical work are like conductors of an orchestra, whose audience becomes the silent performers. 159 The possible poetic nature of this type of expression is, within the rigorous definition of the word, a justifiable reference to the methodological premises for understanding myth. Lévi-Strauss nevertheless bases his premises on the thesis that myth analysis will not reveal how people think, but rather how the thoughts founded in myth are interconnected, which is one of the basic ideas behind his structural anthropology and myth analysis overall: I therefore claim to show, not how men think in myths, but how myths operate in men s minds without their being aware of the fact. 160 From the structuralist perspective, myths consist of a set of (more or less fixed) relationships between constitutively significant units (the mythical events, their functions) and the various ways in which they are combined, which makes it possible to reveal their structural principles and define their semantic function. Reading Myths as Musical Scores Lévi-Strauss s structural analysis of the Oedipus myth fi rstly exemplifies the metho dological output of reading a myth for the purpose of revealing its internal structure, wh ich, at the unconscious level, draws attention to the bridge between the relevant oppositions 156 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Ibid. 158 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man, Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Ibid.,

67 present in mythical thinking. In other words, it is an analysis of the langue of the myth, which conceals itself behind what the myth says its parole. This indicates the structural nature of myth and language and the way in which they are related. The constitutive units of myths are mythemes, which, as compared to the phonemes and morphemes of the spoken language, are situated at a higher level in the structure. Related mythemes cluster together and create functional units of meaning at various levels, which are revealed through the structural analysis of myths. This is where Lévi-Strauss s comparison of the analytical reading of a myth with the reading of a musical score comes into play: reading not only the melody (the horizontal line), from left to right, sheet by sheet, individual motif by individual motif, but, at the same time, also reading vertically from top to bottom in order to disclose the harmonic unity of the internal significance of the myth/music. 161 What differentiates the two is the method used to tell the myth and how it is understood: Were we to tell the myth, we would disregard the columns and read the rows from left to right and from top to bottom. But if we want to understand the myth, then we will have to disregard one half of the diachronic dimension (top to bottom) and read from left to right, column after column, each one being considered as a unit. 162 The mythemes are subsequently numbered sequentially, and arranged into columns according to the shared function. The lines of this score point out the development of individual mythemes over time. Ultimately, the internal structure of the Oedipus myth comes to light by reading the columns from left to right, connecting the diachronic di mension with the synchronic, the syntagmatic with the paradigmatic. According to Lévi-Strauss, this musical reading makes it possible to discover the significance thanks to the similarity between myth and music. 163 This analogy also draws attention to additional conformities and the thought-inspiring nature of the approach. During our own diachronic reading (hearing) of a myth, we are able to note only the individual events and motifs as they follow one another in what can be termed as in unison. Conversely, musical compositions may contain noticeable overlaps of multiple motifs simultaneously within the individual voices (or layers) within one short period of time. The synchronous analysis of myth draws attention to the processes of perceiving music through memory reconstruction in relation to structure the individual musical thoughts are retained in one s memory when listening to a composition in order to allow the listener to sense their interrelationships and the existing successions after the composition has ended with the aim of creating a musical image of the entirety of the piece. 164 This process is cognitively 161 For more information, refer to: Claude Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology (New York: Anchor, 1963), Ibid., Claude Lévi-Strauss, Myth and Music, Compare with the following citation: Thus there is a kind of continuous reconstruction taking place in the mind of the listener to music or the listener to a mythical story. Ibid.,

68 very demanding, however, and certain compositional relationships may be revealed only after returning to the musical material with, for example, the sheet music, or by creating a written outline. In the case of Lévi-Strauss, the use of the orchestral approach to myth is primarily determined (as has already been mentioned) on the basis of the methodological and practical requirements resulting from the synchronous level of the myth and the emphasis placed on it. The Musical Form of Myth and the Transformation of Musical Styles By integrating musical forms into the myth analysis presented in The Raw and the Cooked, Lévi-Strauss attempts not only to justify the appropriateness of the selected method due to the inability to adequately separate the mythological material using traditional ethno logical methods, but also to draw attention to the more important interconnections between musical and myth structures. The individual chapters are entitled according to musical forms (or, more precisely, forms and types) in poetic connection with specific myths, and, with the exception of the initial Overture, the entire work is one whole comprising five parts. 165 According to the author, the selected approach made it possible to capture the movement and nature of the mythical material with its linear and diffuse rhythm, the slowing down and the acceleration, the alternating solo and tutti sections. 166 The musical forms in their contemporary European form provide models that may be used to analyse myths and make it possible to discover their structure, which has thus far remained hidden from us. The structural similarity of myth and music, based on the universality of the subconscious processes of the human mind, although modified and mediated by culture, has historically already been analysed with the use of music. This universality does not directly apply to specific musical or mythical forms, but rather to the principles of thought that are structured through the use of binary oppositions and are subsequently overcome through specific mythical or musical methods. This process, as outlined, is chronologically reversible: mythical forms found a means of expression in music which took over the structures of mythical thought; anthropology may apply this in reverse when studying myths. Within the structures of the investigated myths, Lévi-Strauss finds a variety of musical forms (from variations to sonatas), but, in his opinion, the most important appear to be the fugue and various polyphonic forms. From the perspective of mythological significance, the key principle is the imitation of motifs by following through and escalation. 165 List of the chapter titles: I Theme and Variations (Bororo Song, Ge Variations), II The Good Man ners Sonata, A Short Symphony, III Fugue of the Five Senses, The Opossum s Cantata, IV Well-Tempered Astronomy (Three Part Inventions, Double Inverted Canon, Toccata and Fugue, Chromatic Piece), V Rustic Symphony in Three Movements (Divertissement on a Folk Theme, Bird Chorus, The Wedding). 166 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked,

69 Lévi-Strauss views the affinity between myth and music as a relationship resulting from structural similarities associated with the synchronous dimension of myth and musical scores, but also from the perspective of their closeness in time during a specific stage in the development of European (art) culture. According to Lévi-Strauss, during the Renaissance and then gradually during the 17 th century and primarily during the 18 th and 19 th cen turies, music became mythical in the sense that, within its structure, it took over forms originally expressed in the myths of antiquity; it became mythical itself by assuming the functions and structures of mythology. The gradual death of myth during this period is, in addition to being linked with secularisation, also related to the advent of Cartesian rationalism and the dominance of scientific thought over the mythical sphere. It is exactly as if music had completely changed its traditional shape in order to take over the function the intellectual as well as emotive function which mythical thought was giving up more or less at the same period. 167 It is specifically in the rise of new musical forms, such as the fugue and the sonata, that Lévi-Strauss sees the causality resulting from the paradigmatic change in musical expression. 168 He in no way interferes in the independent development of musical styles or any other art form, but draws attention to the structural changes and principles in both artistic as well as mythical thought. This enables him to link such diverse areas as myth and musical works. The symmetry of myth and music is, however, strictly limited to the European environment and the concept of musical works that is typically associated with it. The representative composers include Girolamo Frescobaldi, Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, and, of course, Richard Wagner as the originator of the structural analysis of myths. 169 The above-mentioned musical expression is also complementarily placed into relation with the literary form of novels, which began to replace legends with a mythological core over the same period. Music became mythical, and mythical storytelling was transformed into novels: In short, it is as if music and literature had shared the heritage of myth between them. 170 Lévi-Strauss makes only slight mention of possible further developments in music after the 19 th century (and the associated dominance of the tonal system) in a short passage in his The Naked Man. 171 If Wagner is to be considered an example of an individual with an unusually strong awareness of the mythical structure of music, Claude Debussy is another composer who brought this process to its peak. A more detailed explanation 167 Claude Lévi-Strauss, Myth and Music, It should be added that this occurs at the point where dominance transferred from a polyphonic to a homophonic style. Lévi-Strauss does reflect on obvious changes in style over the course of historical development, however, at a more general level, in relation to the overall cultural transformation. 169 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, 15. For more information, refer to: Claude Lévi-Strauss, Myth and Music, In relation to Wagner, compare also the studies completed by the anthropologist John Leavitt: John Leavitt, Mytheme and Motif: Lévi-Strauss and Wagner, Intersections: Canadian Journal of Music 30, No. 1 (2010): Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man, Ibid., 654. Reflections on the development of contemporary music are also briefly covered in Claude Lévi-Strauss, Myth and Music,

70 in the text cannot be found, however, and it may be considered a mere supplement to the musical theme followed in Mythologiques. Lévi-Strauss continues to describe the gradual removal of mythical structures from 20 th century music (particularly during the second half) and the process of the realisation of myth as discourse (reflecting the influence of Hegelian thought). He partially reveals a possible relationship with serial music, which, during the period in question, he either considers representative of contemporary music, or at least limits his work to only this composition method, 172 and avoids the expressive and rhapsodic form of the disappearing novel to the benefi t of music in a way that is comparable to the changes at the start of the new era in the case of myth and music. As regards the topic of 20 th century music, Lévi-Strauss also refers to musique concrète in the Overture chapter of The Raw and the Cooked, but his assessment is negative in all respects: Musique concrète may be intoxicated with the illusion that it is saying something; in fact it is floundering in non-significance. 173 According to Lévi-Strauss, the reasons for this is that sounds, which were originally natural and had clear semantic relationships, once they are modified through musical composition are removed from the causal links to the detriment of musical tomes (which he refers to as pseudo-tones ), consequently establishing an unclear system of newly articulated relationships. At this point, one of the fundamental principles of structural anthropology may be seen, specifically the differentiation and contradictions between nature and culture. 174 Lévi-Strauss has a more positive attitude with regard to serial music. In spite of the many differences that exist, he values the fact that it has comparable characteristics with structuralism, i.e., a well-defined structure and syntax, theoretical ambitions, systematic organisation and a lack of trust in mechanistic and empirical solutions. Most important is the fact that tonality is retained in serial music as well as in the organisation of the level of the music as an articulated 172 Lévi-Strauss s theses do not represent an attempt to structurally analyse contemporary music and completely overlook the rich developments in music during the first half of the 20 th century. They also do not mention other important musical characteristics of the second half, such as electronic and electro-acoustic music, aleatoric music, minimalism, and others. It may even be possible to view the reasons for this one-sidedness in relation to the questionable part of his theories: he comments only on those directions in music that are either in conflict or in agreement with the paradigms of structural anthropology and the musical analysis of myth. 173 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Josef Fulka focuses on the interpretational elaboration of these premises of Lévi-Strauss within the broader aesthetic context. He confronts Lévi-Strauss s text with Pierre Schaeffer s Traité des objets musicaux, which was published two years after The Raw and the Cooked. The composer manipulates sound objects with the intent of creating new musical significance, specifically without the need for a link to the duality of nature-culture (i.e., natural sound and musical tone). Schaeffer discovers an overlooked dimension of noise, and consequently timbre, in musical sound. Fulka draws attention to Lévi-Strauss s insufficient coverage of the aspect of timbre as one of the most intensively developed aspects of 20 th century music within the context of his opposing argument differentiating between sound and tone colour. Josef Fulka, Lévi-Strauss, Schaeffer, Wagner: hudební struktura mýtu, Teorie vědy 30, No. 1 (2009):

71 language in the linguistic sense of the word (i.e., the organisation of tonal height, timbre, to total organisation ). 175 It is possible to see Lévi-Strauss s position with regard to composition poetry in, for example, his classification of composers on the basis of partially defi ned structural linguistic communication models for music and the cognitive and emotional functions of music. This is at the level of codes and sharing with the added attribute of myth. The composers are separated into three groups with varying levels of crossover and combination options. The composers are always specified in pairs comprising one classical and one modern composer for reasons of simplification and standardisation. Lévi-Strauss names J. S. Bach and Igor Stravinsky as typical composers concerned with code (they use their messages to illustrate and comment on the rules of musical discourse). Ludwig van Beethoven and Maurice Ravel are placed in the group of composers concerned with a message (the predominant feature of their work is telling a story). The third category, comprising composers of myth, includes Richard Wagner and Claude Debussy (their messages are based on elements that are naturally present in their narrative). Using the same sequence of categorisation, Lévi-Strauss also classifies composers from the Second Viennese School, specifically Anton Webern, Arnold Schöenberg, and Alban Berg. 176 Time Music Immortality One frequently cited sentence from the Overture chapter of The Raw and the Cooked is Lévi-Strauss s characterisation of myth and music with regard to the temporality of human experience: Both, indeed, are instruments for the obliteration of time. 177 The idea that time is destroyed (suppressed) by myth and music, as presented in this isolated form, is certainly inspirational, but, given its nature, also problematic. It offers the possibility of understanding and applying it purely through a purely structuralist prism, psychologically, philosophically (ontologically), or in a myriad of other ways, which may naturally lead to deformations and shifts in meaning. In relation to this fact, Lévi-Strauss argues that a differentiation must be made between the diachronic time when listening to music, and physiological time. In this particular case, he does not fail to take into account the otherwise overlooked field of psychology. In his view, music, like myth, requires a natural diachronic dimension in order to exist, it takes place in time, and, simultaneously, it transforms time into its own enclosed synchronic form. Music and myth are both able to overcome the passage of historic time as well as the static nature of their own structure. Lévi-Strauss also writes about the two continua of music and myth. The external continuum is based on the course of historical circumstances, which provide the material for creating myths; in the case of music, in musicological terms, one can speak of the dispositional universe 175 For more information, refer to Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, Ibid., Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked,

72 of music in the form of sets of tones as the material used for creating a musical work. The internal continuum is dependent on the internal time of the listener. Lévi-Strauss refers to the issues associated with physiological time, the periodicity of brainwaves, organic rhythms, and the memory capacity of the human brain. Music, in his opinion, contains psychological, physiological and visceral time. He generally completes his interpretation through applying the basic bipolar oppositions of nature and culture: music operates as two grids the physiological and the cultural. 178 Using this basis, Lévi-Strauss s concept of a musical work is internally organised in a structurally synchronous manner (refer to the section that correlates myth to a musical score), and this aspect leads to the suppression of passing time. When listening to music or to myth, their synchronous dimension loses its temporal aspect. Listening to music even brings one to the threshold of the metaphysical: [ ] when we are listening to it, we enter into a kind of immortality. 179 Within the context of this overall theme, both the diachronic as well as synchronic crosssections obviously reflect the inspirational aspects of structural linguistics: the langue is found behind the parole, the paradigmatic is disclosed on the basis of the syntactic. Based on the outline of the theoretical environment of the cited sentence, a quote can be considered from a later interview with Lévi-Strauss that took place in 2001, in which he puts the investigated issues associated with myth and music into concrete terms; specifically, diachronic cultural messages must be read synchronically. One could argue that the text included below introduces a much more succinct meaning than that which has been presented by a number of other authors in the past: CLS [Claude Lévi-Strauss]: But in speaking of a time-cancelling machine I wasn t trying to say anything profound or important. I only wanted to say that what is important for understanding a myth is not following the progress of the story but recognizing that it is made up of superposed slices like the parts of a score and therefore has to be grasped outside the linear time that we are accustomed to, just as when we have really listened to a piece of music our memory reassembles the phrases we have heard into a whole. I don t think there is any philosophical message here! 180 Bolero As far as his theses regarding the homology of myth and music are concerned, Lévi-Strauss did not remain at purely the theoretical level, as is evidenced by the well-known analysis of Maurice Ravel s Bolero (1928) he presents in the Finale chapter of The Naked Man. 181 Even though one might question the representative nature of the specific composition 178 Ibid., Ibid., Marcello Massenzio, An Interview with Claude Lévi-Strauss, Current Anthropology 42, No. 3 (2001): For more information, refer to Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Naked Man,

73 he selected, this analytical experiment provides convincing and inventive proof of the structure of music, which can even be appreciated by a musicologist with his entire set of analytical tools. In the presentation of Bolero, there is of course the intent to confirm the deeper methodological basis of the musical analysis of myth the structural presence of binary oppositions and how they are overcome, a confi rmation of the identical approach in myth and in musical works. Whilst, according to Ravel, one might tradi tionally interpret Bolero as an orchestral crescendo or as a textbook example of orchestral instrumentation, Lévi-Strauss attempts to reveal certain aspects of the composition about which the composer is de facto not aware and which are associated with myth and the unconscious structure of the universality of human thought. In addition, it is possible to see the presence of the equally important aspect of transformation in this case, the musical material, its components, and its facets. Pandora Hopkins draws attention to Lévi-Strauss s described intent when she states: His aim is to find unconscious structuring in the work patterns that have manifested themselves despite the avowed intention of the composer [ ]. 182 The tectonic and structural principles of Bolero are once again the same as those of certain myths that are based on their spiralling growth, dynamic progress, and the gradual introduction of musical texture resulting from the presence of contradictions. Lévi-Strauss reveals these moments in the presence of contrasts within the musical thoughts of the composition: subject/answer and counter-subject/counter-answer in periodic succession. The accompanying ostinato motif, which is the opposite of the main undulating melody, reflects the internal presence of the intertwined ternary and binary rhythms and the ¾ metre, and, no less importantly, the overall modulation and tonal contrast of the subject (expressed for the first time in C major on the flute) and the counter-subject in the composition (expressed for the first time on the clarinet; although the counter-subject drifts towards F minor, it never reaches that point). These oppositions form the backbone of the composition. According to Lévi-Strauss, Ravel, at the beginning of the piece, shifts his attention to the orchestration and timbral aspects, which are not however the determinant factors. After exhausting the timbral complexity of the instruments that are played and their various combinations in solos, duos, and groups, there is a necessary escalation and the aforementioned internal opposites are transformed in a manner that is entirely unexpected: the sudden modulation of the C major key into E major shortly before the finale and the return to the main tonality. According to Lévi- Strauss, the E major key, in addition to taking on the harmonic function of the major mediant in the C major tonality, is also in the structurally mediant position, which plays a key role in bridging all of the existing opposites. E major is the parallel key of C minor and is distantly related to the F minor key, towards which the counter call drifts (the tonality in C minor is a chromatic shift of the enharmonic third that is interchangeable with the D flat major chord, which belongs to the F minor tonality, and the F minor chord is the minor subdominant of C major). The modulation is therefore the mediation that 182 Pandora Hopkins, The Homology of Music and Myth: Views of Lévi-Strauss on Musical Structure, Etnomusicology 21, No. 2 (1977):

74 determines the elements of the composition s structure. Lévi-Strauss loosely compared Bolero to a fugue laid out flat due to the presence of linearly developing motifs, themes, and elements concealing incompatibility, the individual voices succeeding each other as if they were pursuing one other and becoming interwoven. Even though the described analysis confirms the correctness of the principles contained in Lévi-Strauss s overall theory, it cannot be absolutely applied to all musical works and can by no means be called unproblematic. 183 Musicological Applications and Critical Reflections The presence of mythological links in musical works, as defined in Lévi-Strauss s concept, has been refl ected in the inspiration for a number of musicological applications and a further elaboration of this concept. I should like to draw attention to some of them with the aim of expanding the fairly narrow theoretical focus of the analyses presented in Lévi-Strauss s texts. Carl Dahlhaus addressed the temporal aspect of myth and music and the concept of binary oppositions in his analysis of Wagner s music. In his case, the primary methodological interest in analysis takes into account the synchronic and diachronic aspect of myth and how it is reflected in the horizontal and vertical dimensions of music in an orchestral score. Amongst other things, Dahlhaus works with the duality of historical time ( in time ) and time as an aesthetic phenomenon ( out of time ). 184 One can also see the application of the methodological ideas contained in Lévi-Strauss s works in Eero Tarasti s classic monograph Myth and Music (1978). Tarasti revises the initial theory and expands it further within the context of musical semiotics with the use of communication theory, primarily through the narrative model of myth and music. When defining the mythical style in music, Tarasti uses the relationships between myth and music as outlined by Lévi-Strauss but also critically notes: However, Lévi-Strauss 183 Pandora Hopkins, for example, emphasises the listening strategy for a work that may not perceptually fit in with Lévi-Strauss s idea. The novelty of Bolero may be seen in the new relationships between traditionally used elements and the important aspect of mass tone colour. Ibid., Nikolaus Bacht contemplates the origin of constitutive oppositions and whether they are truly polar (as far as the structuring of music as such is concerned) or if, in Bolero they are not merely derived from the initial motif/subject. The modulation in the finale of the composition does not therefore resolve contradictions, but is the logical culmination of the composition. Nikolaus Bacht, Enlightenment from Afar. The Structural Analogy of Myth and Music According to Claude Lévi-Strauss, Acta Musicologica 73, No. 1 (2001): Eero Tarasti also addresses the analysis of Bolero and describes its structuring principle as mythical with more frequent occurrences, and demonstrates this using the compositions of Dmitri Shostakovich and Jan Sibelius. Eero Tarasti, Myth and Music. A Semiotic Approach to the Aesthetics of Myth in Music, especially that of Wagner, Sibelius and Stravinsky (Helsinki: Suomen Musiikkitieteellinen Seura, 1978), Carl Dahlhaus, Analyse des Mythos: Claude Lévi-Strauss und Der Ring des Nibelungen, in Klassische und romantische Musikästhetik (Laaber: Laaber-Verlag, 1988),

75 overlooks one possible relation between myth and music: he does not discuss a case in which music could acquire meaning or content from mythology, just as mythology could in part acquire sound from music, as it does in a ritual, for example, where myth may be performed with a song melody. 185 Victoria Adamenko, who is influenced by, amongst other things, the Moscow-Tartu semiotic school, makes substantial use of Lévi-Strauss s theses in her analysis and interpretation of neo-mythologism in 20 th century compositions. Using them as a foundation and applying an interdisciplinary approach, she reveals the use of the structural, expressive, and textual elements of myth (the constitutive function of binary oppositions, symbolic numbers and cosmology) in the compositional work of selected composers. 186 Nikolaus Bacht presents yet another application of Lévi-Strauss s theory. He draws attention to the time delay in the adaptation of the structuralist method within the field of music analysis and criticises certain non-beneficial experiments as being carried out in the spirit of vulgar Lévi-Straussianism. He emphasises the importance of the structuralist analyses of Nicolas Ruwet, which preceded the texts of Jean Jacques Nattiez mentioned below. He also mentions the critiques of post-structuralists and post-modernists (Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari, Jean-François Lyotard and Jacques Derrida) as they are directed at Lévi-Strauss and structuralism itself. 187 An interesting application may be seen in Luciano Berio s Sinfonia, for 8 amplified voices & orchestra ( ), which, amongst other things, uses some of Lévi-Strauss s text from The Raw and the Cooked in the external sentences of his five-part structure. Here one fi nds not only textual references to myth, but also structural references in the way oppositions are handled in the phonetic area of the texts and musical material that are used. From the structural perspective, the composition contains a musical form corresponding to the type of myth that has two entirely different motifs but ultimately ends by merging them through placing repeated emphasis on the details of these motifs. Lévi-Strauss stated that this myth form had not yet found its musical counterpart in com positions. The musicalisation of this myth was subsequently found, as is known, in the Toccata for piano op. 62 (1964) composed by Lévi-Strauss s friend René Leibowitz. In his analysis, David Osmond-Smith demonstrates that the described structure is also present in Berio s composition. 188 Lévi-Strauss s daring concept of the homology of myth and European art music did not remain without critical commentaries and rejections, however, both from anthropology and related fields as well as from the field of musicology. The previously cited Pandora Hopkins comprehensively addressed this point from the musicological perspective. In her 185 Eero Tarasti, Ibid., Victoria Adamenko, Neo-Mythologism in Music. From Scriabin and Schoenberg to Schnittke and Crumb (New York: Hillsdale, 2007). 187 Nikolaus Bacht, Ibid., For more information, refer to David Osmond-Smith, From Myth to Music: Lévi-Strauss s Mythologiques and Berio s Sinfonia, The Musical Quarterly 67, No. 2 (1981):

76 view, from the perspective of more general methodological and philosophical issues, attention should be drawn to the presence of too many generalisations in the theory, and the vagueness in the binary structuring in relation to any sort of empirical material. Another area that is questioned is the premise of the universality of human thought processes and their verifiable transferability between culturally determined areas of myth and art, not to mention the radical differences in the time and place of separate social groups in the case of the myths of native American tribes and the elite culture of Europe with its own traditions. One should also consider the frequently repeated criticism of Eurocentrism with regard to the models of myth analysis and also as concerns the narrowing down of the musical universe into categories of musical works with all of their implications, the inadequate coverage of the musical phenomenon of improvisation, the communication channels of music separated according to creator and interpreter, and the levels of sharing. Hopkins also states, however, that many negative critiques have been the result of misunderstandings, such as in the case of Lévi-Strauss s well-known theses of the untranslatability of myth and music, as in the case of myth it is not possible to obtain the original (superior, correct) version. Lévi-Strauss apparently meant the original version of a myth in its original language; he was not referring to its structure. In his view, myths always exist in relation to other myths in all of their variations. In this regard, methodological help with the analysis of music is appropriate, as it points out the principle of variation as one of the basic principles for shaping music. 189 Jean Jacques Nattiez subjects Lévi-Strauss s work to criticism from the position of semiotics and structural analysis as such, because, according to him, the investigated topic will always be problematic if it continues to be viewed through the prisms of other disciplines. Nattiez points out, for example, the issues associated with the synchronic and diachronic dimension of myth and music, the fact that the theory itself may be falsified and the reduction of the analysis of myths using music to an aesthetic level on the basis of judgement. 190 Nikolaus Bacht writes about the ever-present interconnectivity between myth and history, particularly in the European context. In his opinion, this makes it impossible to apply Lévi-Strauss s process directly and to connect European and non-european cultures. His concept of an universal logic, or metalanguage, abstracted from supposedly ahistorical myth, is not applicable to West European music, which stands firmly in history Pandora Hopkins, Ibid., Jean Jacques Nattiez, Ibid., Refer also to Jean Jacques Nattiez, Lévi-Strauss musicien: Essai sur la tentation homologique (Arles: Actes sud, 2008). 191 Nikolaus Bacht, Ibid.,

77 Conclusion In spite of many questionable moments, the musical component of Claude Lévi-Strauss s work is an integral and logical part of the structuralist investigation of myth. In this study I have focused on some of the problematic spheres in relation to music, which were inter preted in several different areas. The structural homology of myth and music with an ontological and epistemological status pertains to Lévi-Strauss s analysis of the relationships between myth and music and how they are linked to language, which becomes apparent with the use of linguistic terminology and the creation of a coherent system. Any generalisation of the relationships between myth and music prevents them from being understood as a closed system and being externally non-transferable. Myth analysis carried out by using the method for reading a musical score and the thesis regarding myth as a machine that suppresses time may be described as methodological metaphors. In spite of the link to the homological correlation between myth and music, an emphasis is placed on a practical analytical process. Lévi-Strauss s statements regarding the formal links between music and myth match the idea that a connection exists between the unconscious structures of the human mind in various cultural societies outside the framework of mere ethnography and anthropology. In the case of musicology, the links associated with the stylistic and structural changes in musical expression that have taken place from the Renaissance to the 19 th century and the way in which music has assumed mythical forms, as well as the commentaries on serial music, remain inspirational aspects. Lévi- Strauss s observations concerning the typology of composers and compositional poetry are of a supplemental nature. Conversely, the analysis of Ravel s Bolero provides an innovative view of musical structure and musical analysis methodology. By identifying these problematic aspects associated with the role music plays in myth analysis, attention has been drawn to their possible semantic intent, within the framework of which they should be construed and critiqued. In conclusion, I consider the musical legacy in the works of Lévi-Strauss to be an expression of the scientific and philosophical view of a European individual who penetrated the depths of mythical thought whilst remaining firmly rooted in his own cultural traditions. A Musical Analysis of Mythical Thought in the Work of Claude Lévi-Strauss Abstract This study addresses the music-related aspects of the works of Claude Lévi-Strauss within the context of musicology and with a specific focus placed on his Mythologiques tetralogy. The aim is to define thematic categories for the individual theses within which they are further contextually understood. Selected references to music from Lévi-Strauss s work were analysed, compared, and interpreted, taking into consideration the theories of structural linguistics and anthropology. The topics chosen for the investigation include the 77

78 system of relationships between language, mythology, and music, the analysis of myths using musical scores, the thesis that both music and myth are instruments that suppress time, the mythical nature of musical forms, and an analysis of Maurice Ravel s Bolero. The study takes into account current musicological applications that use the structural analysis of myths, and also critical reflections regarding Lévi-Strauss s theories. The individual categories were defi ned as structural homologies of myth and music, methodological tools of a metaphorical type to analyse myths using music, and the area commenting on the principles governing the styles and forms in the development of European art music and composed poetry. Hudební analýza mytologického myšlení v díle Clauda Lévi-Strausse Abstrakt Studie se zabývá hudební linií díla Clauda Lévi-Strausse v kontextu muzikologie se zaměřením na cyklus Mythologiques. Cílem je vytvořit tematické okruhy, do kterých jednotlivé teze spadají, a ve kterých jsou dále kontextově chápány. Vybrané odkazy v jeho textech k hudbě byly analyzovány, komparovány a interpretovány se zohledněním teorií strukturální lingvistiky a antropologie. Jako předmět zkoumání jsme zvolili systém vztahů mezi jazykem, mýtem a hudbou, analýzu mýtu pomocí hudební partitury, teze o hudbě a mýtu jako nástrojů k ničení času, mytologický charakter hudebních forem, analýzu Bolera Maurice Ravela. Zohledněny jsou aktuální muzikologické aplikace strukturální analýzy mýtu a kritická reflexe Lévi-Straussovy teorie. Jednotlivé okruhy byly vymezeny jako strukturní homologie mýtu a hudby, metodologické nástroje metaforického typu k analýze mýtu pomocí hudby, oblast komentářů ke stylovým a formovým zákonitostem vývoje evropské umělecké hudby a skladatelských poetik. Keywords Claude Lévi-Strauss; structuralism; Mythologiques; ethnomusicology; myth; mythology; music; musical analysis; Bolero. Klíčová slova Claude Lévi-Strauss; strukturalizmus, Mythologiques; etnomuzikologie; mýtus; mytologie; hudba; hudební analýza; Bolero. 78

79 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 Providing for the Active Participation of the Entire Assembly : Petr Eben s Liturgical Music with Congregational Participation Manfred Novak Introduction Petr Eben was one of the few internationally renowned composers who embraced the implications of the Second Vatican Council (Vat. II) on writing music for the liturgy and who took up the challenge of providing music for the active participation of the entire congregation. 192 This active participation (participatio actuosa) is a keyword of Vat. II s liturgical reform. The term goes back to the Motu proprio Tra le sollecitudini (1903) by pope Pius X, in which he wished for the congregation to join in the liturgical chants. 193 This original meaning of participatio actuosa, the singing congregation, never since ceased being one of the term s core concepts, even if its meaning was expanded in the course of the 20 th century. 194 Contrary to many of his colleagues, Petr Eben found 192 Composers, filled with the Christian spirit, should feel that their vocation is to cultivate sacred music and increase its store of treasures. Let them produce compositions which have the qualities proper to genuine sacred music, not confining themselves to works which can be sung only by large choirs, but providing also for the needs of small choirs and for the active participation of the entire assembly of the faithful. Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963), art In particolare si procuri di restituire il canto gregoriano nell uso del popolo, affinché i fedeli prendano di nuovo parte più attiva all officiatura ecclesiastica, come anticamente solevasi. Pius X, Tra le sollecitudini, art. 3, La Santa Sede, accessed November 4, 2015, pius-x/it/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-x_motu-proprio_ _sollecitudini.html. 194 For a detailed discussion of the term, concept, and history of participatio actuosa see Stephan Schmid-Keiser, Aktive Teilnahme: Kriterium gottesdienstlichen Handelns und Feierns (Bern: Peter Lang, 1985). For a recent and concise summary emphasising the term s relevance to liturgical music see Rudolf Pacik, Aktive Teilnahme: Schlüsselbegriff der erneuerten Liturgie, in Im Klangraum der Kirche: Aspekte-Positionen-Positionierungen in Kirchenmusik und Liturgie, ed. Martin Hobi (Zürich: Chronos, 2007),

80 inspiration in taking up the compositional challenges inherent in the requirement of including congregational singing. 195 Any composer who wants to include congregational participation in his liturgical music is challenged by two main questions: 1. Which compositional means or techniques can I apply in order to enable a group of untrained singers to participate in and perform my composition? 2. How can I keep true to my aesthetic convictions and personal style, when I have to keep things simple enough for the congregation to take part? These two questions will be considered on the following pages and exemplified by analysis of three works by Petr Eben, Deutsches Ordinarium (1965), 196 Marien-Vesper (1968), 197 and Missa cum populo ( ). 198 These works were chosen because they specify a part for the congregation among a larger ensemble (cantor, schola, choir, organ, brass and percussion instruments) and are accessible in published editions. Of the three, Deutsches Ordinarium is the composition on the smallest scale. This fact makes it especially interesting with regard to the aesthetical question: Do limited musical resources and the inclusion of the congregation necessitate a compromise of style? The answers Petr Eben gives in his music will contribute to the understanding of a part of his compositional output. They may also show a way for composing liturgical music after Vat. II, thanks to Eben 195 Ich glaube, es ist vollkommen abhängig vom Komponisten, ob er in der erneuerten Liturgie eine Chance sieht oder sie nur als Einschränkung empfindet. Das liegt ganz an ihm, und er hat wirklich die Möglichkeit, nicht nur eine Chance, sondern sogar eine Inspiration darin zu finden. [ ] Für mich war z. B. das Problem der Miteinbeziehung des Volksgesanges schon inspirierend. Das ist nicht einfach, aber bestimmt ein Problem, das für den Komponisten sehr interessant ist. (Petr Eben in an interview with Franz Karl Praßl, Diese Botschaft war mir immer nahe : Ein Gespräch mit dem Prager Komponisten Petr Eben zu seinem 65. Geburtstag, Singende Kirche 41, No. 1 (1994): 5 9, here 7.) 196 This work was titled Deutsches Ordinarium when it was published with German text by pro organo (P. O. 3037) in Originally it set the liturgical texts in Czech language to music. 197 This work was titled Marien-Vesper when it was published with both German and Latin text underlay by pro organo (P. O. 3019) in Its original language is Catalan because it was commissioned by the Benedictine monastery of Montserrat for the Vespers of the feast of the Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary. 198 Missa cum populo was commissioned by Radio France, premiered at Avignon festival in 1983, and published by Süddeutscher Musikverlag Heidelberg (SM 2780) in Eben composed two organ verses complementing Missa cum populo, both of which are written on Gregorian melodies: Pueri Hebraeorum to be played during the offertory and Adoro Te devote during the communio. These two verses (composed in 1982) were premiered in 1986 and are published by Universal Edition (cf. Kateřina Vondrovicová, Petr Eben: Leben und Werk (Mainz: Schott, 2000), , 256). As they are neither included in the edition of Missa cum populo by Süddeutscher Musikverlag nor include any vocal parts, they are not discussed in this paper. 80

81 being rated one of few composers who met both liturgical and artistic demands in their compositions The Technical Question 1.1 Deutsches Ordinarium This composition is written for one single vocal part plus organ accompaniment, 200 which always doubles the vocal part in its top line. The pro organo edition suggests an optional distribution of phrases among three different performing forces: cantor, schola (unison choir), and congregation. Thus there is a variety of performing options, including schola plus organ (without congregation) or congregation plus organ (without cantor and/or schola), which allows for an adaptation of the work according to the availability of singers. 201 This simple design provides optimal support for the members of the congregation, who always get doubled by the organ, can always be doubled by other vocalists (cantor and/or schola), and in case of antiphonal execution will be able to listen to some of their melodies right before they themselves are supposed to sing. The melodic structure is diatonic with the rare chromatic alteration of single pitches; the Kyrie is built on a Lydian scale, the Gloria on a Dorian scale, the Sanctus on a major scale, the Agnus Dei on minor scale. The Credo is somewhat more complex: Its key sig nature is F major but parts of it make extensive use of the pitches A flat and C flat. Most often the melodies progress stepwise, often thirds are used, and the largest interval is the fifth. Note values are restricted to crotchets and quavers; rare minims or dotted crotchets can be found at the end of phrases or motifs; parts of the Credo are recited on a single note without any specified rhythm. Short melodic phrases are repeated several times, occasionally showing small alteration or development in later repetitions. Again the Credo is a bit different: It is the only movement that employs transposition and sequence. Furthermore, it includes the melody of the well-known Easter chant Christ ist erstanden as a quotation. All the mentioned features aim at keeping the melody simple and relatively easy to perform. Even though the Kyrie includes a melodic tritone, this interval is well embedded in the organ accompaniment (both pitches forming it sound in the organ before they 199 Cf. the judgement of Niko Firnkees: Insgesamt verstehen es nur wenige Komponisten, Praktikabilität und ästhetisches Niveau unter einen Hut zu bringen. In jüngster Zeit scheint dies dem Tschechen Petr Eben gelungen zu sein. Niko Firnkees, Sakrale Musik nach 1945 als musikpädagogische Aufgabe (Augsburg: Wißner, 2000), There is also a version for a cappella choir (SATB), published by pro organo (P. O. 3038). 201 In case of a performance with congregation plus organ alone, some phrases of the Kyrie may be skipped. 81

82 have to be sung), and in case of a performance with cantor and schola the congregation members would hear the phrase twice before they are supposed to sing. Ex. 1: Petr Eben, Deutsches Ordinarium, Kyrie, mm. 1 3 (excerpt from pro organo 3037) Also the organ accompaniment is kept simple and basically provides chordal harmony for the melody. How this inclination towards practicability avoids being simplistic, and whether or not it affects Eben s style, is discussed in point 2 of this article. 1.2 Marien-Vesper Marien-Vesper was composed in 1968 for a symposium organized by the Benedictine abbey of Montserrat, who invited several renowned composers to discuss issues of liturgical music after Vat. II. In the frame of this symposium two liturgical works in the vernacular (Catalan) for the feast of the Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary were premiered, a mass proper by Ernst Krenek 202 and Vespers by Petr Eben. Marien-Vesper consists of five movements (settings of psalms 109, 112, 126; Responsorium breve; Magnificat) written for soprano, baritone, mixed choir, congregation and organ. The congregation is included in the first two psalms, the Magnificat, and (optionally) in the Responsorium breve. In the first psalm Eben restricted himself to one monophonic voice plus organ. The congregation sings the refrain ( Antiphon ) between the psalm verses. The choir performs the first statement of the refrain (and recites the psalm verses, which are set to newly composed formulas and alternately entrusted to the male or female section of the choir). Thus the congregation gets the chance to listen to the D major melody of the refrain before it joins in for the recurrences. The organ accompaniment gives harmonic support for the pitches, but is rhythmically more independent in comparison with Deutsches Ordi narium. The lack of rhythmic support does not, however, cause any problems for 202 Proprium Missae per a la festa de la nativitat de la mare de Deu, op. 202 (for soloists SATB, choir SATB, congregation, clarinet, 2 trumpets, percussion, viola, harp and organ). 82

83 the congregation, thanks to the choir not having its own part at that time and therefore being able to support the people. In the second psalm the congregation can take part in the psalm itself, while the anti phon is sung by the choir. The congregation takes part with a call, Hochlobt den Namen des Herrn, which is inserted after each verse and is introduced by the female voices of the choir who state it (in unison), before the congregation and the male voices of the choir repeat it with the support of the organ doubling the melodic line. The unison makes it still more convenient for the congregation to listen to the melody and recognize it as the clue for its entry. Ex. 2: Petr Eben, Marien-Vesper, 2 nd psalm, mm (excerpt from pro organo 3019) The short, repeated call, which is performed by the congregation and the male voices as a response to the psalm verses of the female voices, adds to the joyous, rhythmic drive of the movement. For a contrasting middle section, the choir sings a quieter, calmer chordal passage, making the whole psalm an A B A form framed by the antiphon and preceded by a short organ introduction. For the fourth movement, the Responsorium breve, Eben provides two versions of the Versiculum to choose from. The second option, Versiculum b, includes the congregation with a simple recitation. This recitation is started by the baritone soloist, who delivers his text on g; only the last note goes down to e, concluding the sentence. The congregation repeats the very same model with new text. The recitation formula is embedded in harmonies and contrapuntal lines provided by the choir and the organ. This is the first instance in which congregation and choir have different, overlapping parts. Just like the first psalm, the Magnificat starts with an organ prelude and a monophonic antiphon in D major. Here the congregation is invited to sing right from the beginning. Again, the choir is free to join singing the antiphon, which is accompanied by the organ in chordal style. The choir proceeds polyphonically with the text of the Magnificat, in which the congregation participates during the last four verses (set to the same melody 83

84 as the antiphon), with the choir adding four part harmony to the melody of the sopranos and the congregation. 1.3 Missa cum populo Petr Eben himself commented on his Missa cum populo in the booklet accompanying a recording published in 1992 with Panton: My fourth Mass MISSA CUM POPULO was commissioned by Radio France for the Avignon Festival, where its premiere was conducted by Georges Durand. There was, however, a difficult condition attached to that composition: it had to meet the wish of the Second Vatican Council that the congregation should be able to take an active part in the performance of the concert piece. I therefore confronted the four-voice mixed church choir, supported by organ, with an una voice part for the congregation, reinforced by four brass instruments. The question of the responses is solved in the Kyrie by making the congregation respond with the same simple theme to the various phrases of the choir; in the Gloria it is resolved by an ostinato, with the congregation repeating the Gregorian chant of the opening words, in the Credo by a choral recitation by the congregation, with a drum supporting the rhythm, in the Sanctus by contrast of a slow descending sub-theme which rings out at double speed in the Hosannah, and in the Agnus Dei finally in the form of a passacaglia in which the choir builds a climax over the singable theme of the congregation before reverting to a quietly dying-away conclusion. 203 Eben s comments concentrate on formal aspects; it is well worth looking a bit closer: The simple theme of the Kyrie consists of only two different pitches and is supported and harmonized by the brass instruments (2 trumpets, 2 trombones). It enters after the various phrases of the choir so that the congregation basically alternates with the choir; a very short overlap in the notation prevents the choir from joining the congregation, though. The Kyrie theme first occurs when the congregation is supposed to sing it, so the people have to know it beforehand (or learn it from the brass players during the piece). Its entry pitch is easy to find from the ending notes of the preceding phrases sung by the choir. 204 The last occurrence of the theme is in augmentation, with the choir joining forces with the brass section and the congregation. Subsequently, a coda follows for which the congregation is divided into three groups, all reciting Kyrie eleison on equal quavers 203 Petr Eben (1992; Panton ), CD booklet, 5 (no pagination). Missa cum populo was recorded live at a concert on October 6, This CD also includes Vox clamantis and Concerto for Organ and Orchestra No Petr Eben himself confirms that this was a very conscious, practicable consideration: Ein Motiv, das als sechs- oder siebentöniger Refrain gebaut ist, ist sicher ganz leicht einzustudieren. Der Komponist muß dabei aber immer ganz realistisch denken, z. B. im Fall des Kyrie dieser Missa cum populo habe ich das so gemacht, daß dieser Refrain immer mit dem Ton beginnt, mit dem der Chor aufhört. Das sind die praktischen Dinge, die man nicht vergessen darf. Cf. Praßl, Singende Kirche 41: 7. 84

85 on the note D but starting at different points of time. This repeated quaver movement is supported by the trombones and the tomtom. The chant motif that serves as an ostinato is the intonation of the Gloria from the Gregorian Missa Cunctipotens genitor (Missa IV) and thus can be seen as rather familiar to a congregation. The ostinato is supported by the brass and the organ pedal (ad. lib.). The ostinato (and thus the congregation) pauses for the middle-section (figure 3 in the score) and is resumed again for the ending (figure 5 in the score). The entry pitch for the recurrence is clearly given by the choir, and the ostinato is supported by instruments, just as in the beginning. The recitation in the Credo is a spoken rhythmic motif ( Credo in unum Deum ), thus the effort of finding or learning new pitches is avoided. According to Eben, there was still another reason for choosing recitation as a means of participation of a big crowd: the momentum of confession. 205 The congregation is not only supported by the drums and, occasionally, by the brass instruments, but the congregation s entries are also announced by a signal of the gong. Matching the text of the Credo sung by the choir, the text of the recited motif is changed to Credo in Jesum Christum and Credo in Spiritum Sanctum at the appropriate places. For the latter change, the rhythm had to be adapted. The slow descending sub-theme of the Sanctus actually is the beginning of the Gregorian Missa XVIII (in feriis adventus et quadragesimae et ad missam pro defunctis). These three notes on two different pitches are used as an ostinato, which is introduced by the trumpet and subsequently supported by the brass section, the organ pedal, and the choir basses. The ostinato motif is abandoned for the Hosanna and the Benedictus, before it starts the second Hosanna, again introduced by the trumpet, but at double speed. In the Agnus Dei the congregation s participation is similar to that of the Kyrie: after the choir has sung its phrases ( Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi ) the congregation answers Agnus Dei, miserere nobis while the choir still keeps its last note. The congregation has to find its entry pitch (D, a fifth down from the choir note A) from the organ, which provides the D-A sound two crotchets earlier. The singable theme, which is supported by the brass instruments, contains a chromatically descending line, but its strong, expressive character helps to recognize, remember and (hopefully) sing it. 205 [ ] dort, wo es schwierig ist, wie z. B. beim Credo, habe ich mich auf das Rezitieren der Gemeinde in einem starken Rhythmus konzentriert, nicht nur deshalb, weil es leichter einzustudieren ist, son dern auch, weil es gerade beim Credo für mich wichtig war, das Moment des Bekenntnisses auszudrücken, durch die Massenrezitation wurde dieses eigentlich noch gewichtiger. Cf. Praßl, Singende Kirche 41: 8. 85

86 Ex. 3: Petr Eben, Missa cum populo, Agnus Dei, initial entry of the congregation (excerpt from Süddeutscher Musikverlag Heidelberg 2780) Just as in the Kyrie, there is no chance of hearing and thus learning that line during performance before the congregation is supposed to enter. For the third Agnus ( [ ] dona 86

87 nobis pacem ) the line turns into the passacaglia theme that was mentioned by the composer. It is doubled in a variety of combinations by the choir basses, the brass players, and the organ. According to the dynamic arch (a gradual development from p to ff and back to pp) Eben divides the congregation in male and female singers. He lets the male singers start in mp, adds the females for the fourth statement of the theme (at mf), indicating f at the following statement. The females drop out again in the ninth statement (mf), and the male singers finish with the next statement in p. This division of the congregation (which includes the task of finding the correct places to enter and drop out again), the dynamic differentiation, the melodic shape (chromaticism), entering with new melodic material, and an entry pitch different from the preceding choir pitch make the Agnus Dei the most demanding movement for the congregation. 1.4 Commentary The difficult condition of composing for congregation is twofold: A congregation consists of untrained singers, and it does not rehearse. Thus, its part should be written in a way so that it is easy to sing and, if it makes use of newly composed material, ideally can be learnt during the course of the performance. In the light of the preceding parts of this article, a few aspects of such easy singability will be discussed here. Some of them are interdependent, some may be rather obvious; still it seems interesting to see how Petr Eben dealt with them. To begin with, the range for the congregation should avoid extremes and be suited for higher as well as lower voice types, because any congregation is a mixed group of singers. The ranges that Eben used are c 1 d 2 (Deutsches Ordinarium), d 1 e 2 (Marien-Vesper), and d 1 c 2 (Missa cum populo), respectively one octave lower for the male singers. Thus, Eben stayed within the standard ranges of congregational songbooks, even if e 2, which Eben used for the Magnificat, the climax of the work (and also the liturgical celebration!), is definitely the upper limit. 206 The features of the melodies and motifs used for congregational participation have already been mentioned (see 1.1); it s worth noting the rhythmic elementariness, which all the three works have in common. Regarding support for the congregation, Deutsches Ordinarium and Marien-Vesper follow very similar ideas: The organ plays along with the congregation, and the singers of the choir are free to join the congregation on its part (although that option is only specified in the score in exceptional cases), thanks to the fact that overlaps between congregation and the other vocal parts are avoided. Deviations from this rule can be found in the Responsorium breve, where the soloists would be free to join the congregation instead (not specified), and the ending of Magnificat (see 1.2). Such support by vocal doubling is most effective, because it is easiest to sing along with other singers. For Missa cum populo, Eben made a different, more complex choice: Basically the members of the 206 When Petr Eben composed Marien-Vesper in the 1960s, the average ranges in congregational songbooks were slightly higher than they are nowadays. 87

88 congregation are doubled by the brass players and can rely on them as their partners. Additionally, at places they are also supported by the organ or some vocal parts. This multiple support has the advantage of possible variation: Single support groups can switch in and out, they can be freed for other musical tasks of the composition, and no specific group or instrument is bound to always perform with the congregation. The last Kyrie statement may serve as an example: Here Eben switches the usual combinations congregation brass and choir organ to congregation organ and choir brass. By that time the congregation has sung its motif often enough so that this switch will probably not confuse even untrained singers. The issue of melodic clues for the congregation s entry pitches has been mentioned in 1.3; with a few exceptions (Kyrie and Agnus Dei from Missa cum populo, the entry in Magnificat from Marien-Vesper) these clues are very clear and hardly to be missed. But the congregation also has to know the time of entering and sometimes, in case of ostinati, the time of dropping out, an issue which got considerably less attention by the composer. For responsorial forms or such execution, which apply to Deutsches Ordinarium and the first psalm of Marien-Vesper, the constant alternation helps to follow the structure of the composition, and the congregation will relatively easily figure out when to enter again. These forms are common for liturgical music and thus well-known. The issue gets more sensitive when the formal design gets more varied and therefore less straightforward. In the second psalm of Marien-Vesper, for example, the congregation participates with the common form of a call, but this call is integrated in a measured composition and recurs at irregular intervals. Before any such recurrence, in addition to the melodic clue provided by the choir singers, Eben writes an always identical, characteristic figure in the organ accompaniment, which serves as rhythmic clue for the entry. The congregation s entry in the Magnificat is even more demanding: Neither do the singers get the specific pitch, nor would the short rest of the organ give much of a rhythmic clue, and even less so that similar writing occurs already earlier in the organ without indicating an entry of the congregation. However, the musical structure following the entry is a broad chorale being performed by the whole ensemble (choir plus organ), which is why the exact entry point of the congregation is less crucial in this place. The issue of rhythmic clues gets more important in Missa cum populo, because the forms of congregational participation are more complex in this work. The Credo shows a neat solution: The spoken response of the congregation, which recurs at irregular intervals, is always introduced by two strokes of the gong, which are clearly heard, set the tempo, and in this way become a part of the response. In the other movements, however, this helpful rhythmic signal is missing, which is hardly a problem in the Gloria, where the ostinato motif is first sung by the officiating priest and repeated by the congregation. In the Sanctus, where the motif is first played by the first trumpet, it is more difficult to catch because a congregation is more used to answer to singers (and, correspondingly, to text). But the entry is well supported by the remaining brass section and the organ pedal, and the rhythmic structure is simple. Still there are some open questions: How does the congregation know when to enter again after having paused during the respective middle sections? It might follow a text sheet 88

89 providing the text sung by the choir. How do the people know when to stop singing their ostinato (only in the Hosanna the ostinato ends with the ending of the movement)? Do we expect them to count their statements? Really problematic in these aspects are the Kyrie and the Agnus Dei: The congregation s motifs or phrases are neither sung nor played ahead of time, and any rhythmic cues are absent. The first occurrences of the Kyrie are at least at regular intervals, but in the course of the piece the intervals get irregular. And for the entries of the divided groups of the congregation at the end of the movement there are no cues at all. Similar issues can be observed in the Agnus Dei: The first two occurrences are regular, but there is no clue for starting the ostinato, only at its entry the congregation gets doubled by the bass singers and the first trombone. The trumpets enter together with the congregation s females, and they drop out at the same time as well. But these are hints which a singer would notice only in hindsight, the necessary clues before the events are missing. And the question of when to end the ostinato again remains still unanswered for the congregation. Of course, it is generally possible to solve all of these issues by supporting the congregation with a separate unison choir, which can include more experienced singers, which can be rehearsed beforehand, and which the congregation can cling to. 207 Although there are no such hints in the score of Missa cum populo, Petr Eben was in favour of supporting the congregation with an additional choir, as he wrote in a letter to choir director Nick Strimple. 208 Another consideration would be that a conductor directs the congregation. Whatever solution one may find, possibly also dependent on the conditions imposed by the room, there are some passages in Missa cum populo for which providing some additional support for the congregation seems advisable, even if there is a chance of rehearsing with them ahead of time. 209 With regard to formal design, Eben used exclusively common forms of liturgical music for congregational participation in the two earlier compositions: calls, responses/refrains, litany, antiphonal singing, and strophic design at the end of Magnifi cat. Those short and repetitive forms (with the exception of the last two) are easily learned, remembered 207 The published editions of two liturgical compositions by Ernst Krenek hint at this option. In the concluding movement of Proprium für das Dreifaltigkeitsfest, op. 195 (Bärenreiter 4122), the part for the congregation is labelled 1. Chor (Gemeinde ad lib.), although this monophonic part was originally composed for congregation (see Manfred Novak, Zeitgenössische Musik für zeitgenössische Liturgie: Liturgische Werke Ernst Kreneks nach dem II. Vatikanischen Konzil mit Gemeindebeteiligung, Singende Kirche 58, No. 3 (2011): , here 129). In Deutsche Messe, op. 204 (Bärenreiter 5417) it reads Gemeinde (Chor). 208 This letter dates from June 4, 1989, and is reproduced in Christopher D. Haygood, Surmounting Oppression in the Choral Music of Petr Eben: An Analysis of the Missa Adventus et Quadragesimae (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 2013), 102. Speaking of several performances of Missa cum populo, Eben wrote: [ ] and I was always very happy with the involvement of the congregation (the better, if supported by a second choir). 209 Vondrovicová considers rehearsing with the congregation inevitable, cf. Vondrovicová, Eben: Leben und Werk, 240: Das Werk setzt ein vorheriges Einüben mit dem Kirchenvolk voraus. 89

90 and sung, are widely used for liturgical chants (also for small-scale and short pieces of liturgical music) and are therefore familiar to congregations. In Missa cum populo Eben used similar forms, but partly in a more complex way, and he added ostinato forms (such as the mentioned passacaglia in the Agnus Dei), which are well suited for congregational participation because of their repetitive structure, especially when the ostinato motifs or phrases are relatively short. On the other hand, ostinato forms are less familiar, so it is advisable to carefully introduce them and support the congregation. The congregation s recitation in the Credo is something between a response/refrain and an ostinato, and the Agnus-motif starts as a litany and turns into an ostinato. Such combination and expansion of formal concepts adds variety, makes the music less predictable and thus more interesting, and allows a composer to creatively design the form of his composition. But the less predictable and common the forms for the singing congregation get, the better the support and the clues (entry pitches, entry time, ending of ostinato passages ) for the congregation have to be planned. 2 The Aesthetical Question Liturgical music is functional music. It has to fulfil certain criteria in order to fit in and support the dramaturgy of the rite. How to keep true to one s aesthetic convictions and one s style while writing functional music, specifically liturgical music including congregational participation, is a highly personal question. Petr Eben s aesthetic convictions and some features of his personal style are very supportive of composing liturgical music. 2.1 Aesthetic Convictions Petr Eben sees music and the composer in a role of serving society. This direction towards other people, as opposed to writing music for oneself or for the art s sake, 210 allows him to respond to outer needs, which may include liturgical functions such as strengthening bonds of community and promoting participation. 211 Eben s view on music as a message which the composer wants to communicate to his listeners corresponds to another task that liturgical music is required to fulfil, the proclamation of the Word. 212 In order to get his message across, Eben looks for common ground between composer 210 Still Petr Eben developed a highly individual, personal musical language. For Eben, there is no conflict between the imperatives of individual artistic expression (itself pervaded by religious belief) and the necessity of comprehensibility to listeners. Johannes Landgren, Music-Moment-Message: Interpretive, Improvisational, and Ideological Aspects of Petr Eben s Organ Works (Göteborg: Göteborg University, 1997), The functions for liturgical music are quoted from Anthony Ruff, Sacred Music and Liturgical Reform: Treasures and Transformations (Chicago/Mundelein, IL: Hillenbrand, 2007), See note

91 and listener, 213 without giving in to mainstream taste. He acknowledges the task of the contemporary composer to create something new, something unfamiliar, yet thinks that the composer should not lose sight of his audience but try to make his musical language understandable. 214 Even if Eben did not develop these views primarily with regard to liturgical music but while living under a suppressive communist regime where musical utterances had the chance to escape the eyes of the censors, his convictions are supportive of composing liturgical music. At the most basic level, his understanding of music as serving the society and conveying a message makes all the music he writes functional music to some degree or rather, giving the term a positive connotation, serving music Personal Style 216 Eben s views on the role of the composer and of music in society led to the development of certain stylistic features which also lend themselves to writing liturgical music. Those features include adhering to a tonal/modal harmonic language, preferring strong melodic 213 In a broad historical perspective, Eben considers the emancipation of the composer from the church as a social institution (and also a commissioning and employing institution) as one of the main reasons for the gap between nowadays composers and their (potential) audience, because the composer got isolated from society and thus works too subjectively and individualistically for his listeners to follow. Consequently, in writing music for the church he sees a chance to overcome this gap, because the liturgy provides contact between the composer and the (singing) assembly. Cf. James L. Evans, The Choral Music of Petr Eben (MA thesis, University College Cork, 1995), 57 58, Cf. Praßl, Singende Kirche 41: For this reason Eben enjoyed writing (educational) music for children, a task with which he could satisfy the Communist authorities and at the same time did not have to compromise his deviating political convictions (cf. Evans, Choral Music of Petr Eben, ). It was also an opportunity for him to fall back on musical basics such as melody, harmony, tonality or rhythm, something which he considered important for any composer to do from time to time (cf. Praßl, Singende Kirche 41: 6). 216 Studies of Petr Eben s style or a comparison of his liturgical music with his music not written for liturgical usage but at approximately the same time and for approximately the same scoring, which could shed light on the question whether or not he had to alter his style when composing for the liturgy, are impeded by the limited accessibility of printed editions (or manuscripts). There are, however, a number of studies that describe Eben s style by means of analysis of accessible music, and even sketch a development of style during his career. This article relies on these studies when comparing Deutsches Ordinarium, Marien-Vesper and Missa cum populo with the description of Eben s style gained from the analyses of works without congregational participation. Studies taken into account in this process include: Hyungmin Cho, Constancy and Changes in Peter Eben s Sacred Choral Works: An Overview (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2007); Stefan Daubner, Orchesterwerke Petr Ebens Struktur und Zeichen (Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 2003); Evans, Choral Music of Petr Eben ; Haygood, Surmounting Oppression ; Landgren, Music-Moment-Message; Nelly Matova, Petr Eben s Oratorio Apologia Sokratus (1967) and Ballet Curses and Blessings (1983): An Interpretative Analysis of the Symbolism behind the Text Settings and Musical Style (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2010). 91

92 themes and motifs and elaborating on them, as well as using quotations, 217 particularly of Gregorian chant (as melodies conveying the meaning of their texts even if the words are not sung). By quoting a well-known hymn in a composition, the congregation can be included singing this hymn, either with original lyrics or with a newly underlaid text. Eben makes use of this procedure in Deutsches Ordinarium, when he quotes the melody of Christ ist erstanden and has parts of the Credo text sung to it. Quotations of Gregorian melodies are chosen in Sanctus and Gloria of Missa cum populo. There he used those quotations as an ostinato, another very characteristic feature of his style which lends itself to congregational participation because of its inherent repetitiveness: The members of the congregation have the chance to learn the short motif on the way, join in at later statements, and take part in the composition for some considerable duration (as long as the ostinato is in effect). Another feature Eben considers important in order to enable an audience to understand his music is a very clear formal design (often using classical forms, especially in his earlier works), which can be observed in all the three works discussed here. Some of the features aiming at congregational participation (refrains, responses, ostinato, antiphonal singing) at the same time help build a clearly perceived musical form. Making use of ostinato even gives rise to musical forms such as the passacaglia, which Eben employed in Agnus Dei 218 of Missa cum populo as well as in a number of non-liturgical works of both earlier and later origin. 219 Again we find a fortunate correlation between Eben s personal style and favourable techniques of congregational participation. The following table lists some features that are discussed in scholarly literature 220 as being characteristic to Eben s style and their prominent occurrences in the three liturgical works being discussed in this paper. Eben s preference of tonal/modal musical language with clear, often classical, formal design is so pervasive that it is not separately listed. Stylistic features/techniques Deutsches Ordinarium Marien-Vesper Missa cum populo Homorythmic harmonization Gl, Cr Ps 2, 3; Resp, Magn Ky, Gl, Cr, Ag, Postludium (= Post) Pedal-notes Ky, Gl, Cr Ps 1, 2, 3, Magn Praeludium (= Prae), Ky, Cr, Ag Parallel chords Gl, Cr Ps 3 Prae, Cr, Ag, Post Quartal harmony Cr Ps 1, 2, 3; Magn Cr, Ag, Post Bitonality/polytonality Ps 1, 3; Magn Prae, Gl, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag, Post 217 Eben s usage of quotations is by no means limited to sacred music: Cf. Desire of Ancient Things, where he quotes Rameau s La Villageoise and Chopin s Prelude op. 28/15 in D flat major. 218 The initial response of the congregation turns into the passacaglia theme later in the movement. 219 E.g. Symphonia gregoriana (1953/54), see Daubner, Orchesterwerke Petr Ebens, 75; Hiob (1987), see Landgren, Music-Moment-Message, 27; Prager Te Deum (1989), see Cho, Constancy and Changes, See note

93 Classical/functional cadences 221 Gl, Cr, Sa, Ag Ps 1, 2, 3; Resp, Ag Magn Tertian relationships 222 Gl, Cr Ps 1, 3; Resp; Magn Ky, Gl, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag, Post (Chromatic) alteration of notes Gl, Cr, Sa Ps 2, 3; Resp, Magn Ky, Gl, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag, Post Simultaneous major/minor third Ps 1, 2 Sa-Be Melodic triton Ky Ps 1; Magn Ky, Gl, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag, Post Melodic fourths (starting a phrase) Gl, Cr Ps 1, 3; Magn Prae, Ky, Sa-Be, Ag, Post 223 Melodic fifths (starting a phrase) Sa Ps 1, 2; Resp Ky, Ag Successive widening of intervals Sa Ky Melodies with large ambitus Ps 2 Ky, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag Small-scale, chromatic melodies Ky, Ag Polytonal triadic melody Cr, Ag Change of metre (for declamation) Cr Ps 3 Prae, Ky, Gl Lombardic rhythms Prae, Gl, Cr Simultaneous use of different tempi Prae Bi- rhythmic texture Resp Prae, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag Text painting Gl, Cr Ps 2, 3 Cr Quotation Cr Prae, Gl, Sa-Be, Post Use of Gregorian chant Prae, Gl, Sa-Be, Post Old techniques Cr (fauxbourdon) Ps 2, 3; Magn (canon) Prae, Ky, Gl, Cr, Post (antiphonal); Prae, Sa-Be, Ag, Post (canon) Juxtaposition of triads Magn Ky, Sa-Be, Post Ostinato (Ky, Gl) 224 Ps 2, Resp, Gl, Cr, Sa-Be, Ag Magn Use of speaking voice Cr For this category, cadential progressions of V-I and IV-I have been taken into account. 222 Tertian harmony may occur as chord progression as well as harmonic relation between larger form parts. 223 In Postludium the fourth is introduced by the quoted melody. 224 Both movements include short motifs that get repeated. Partly the repetitions are differently harmonized and slightly modified to better fit the changing text. Because of this modification and the short duration of the passages (3 4 statements of each motif) one cannot classify them as ostinati in a strict sense of the word. 93

94 2.3 Commentary The table shows that the amount of characteristic stylistic features in Eben s liturgical compositions is increasing chronologically. This mirrors the increase in numbers of professional performers in the three compositions, whose involvement allows the composer to apply more complex techniques, but also the development of Eben s style to which some features got added in the course of time. According to Stefan Daubner, polytonal triadic melodies only become common in the 1990s, 225 and Hyungmin Cho classifies the extensive use of the speaking voice as a late feature of Eben s choir music, occurring only as late as the 1990s. 226 In this respect, Missa cum populo can even be regarded as stylistically innovative, and the two earlier works are typical examples for their time of origin in not showing any of the features Eben only took up later in his career. Likewise, writing melodies with a large ambitus is something Eben only started in the late 1960s, 227 and this is precisely reflected in the three liturgical compositions. The melodic tritone and bi-rhythmic structures which started to gain importance in the 1960s 228 are other features reflecting the development of Eben s general compositional style. There are more typical features that put those three liturgical compositions firmly into the realm of Eben s general musical language: Folk music, which had influenced Eben s style since the 1960s, inspired him to use lombardic rythms, variation of major and minor thirds (which is reflected in their simultaneous use as well as in chromatic alteration, some of which concerns the third), fourths or fi fths starting a melody, 229 and fi nally, pedal-notes and ostinati. 230 Features still prominently used in later works include ostinati (in Verba Sapientiae, ), 231 classical cadences (in Prager Te Deum, 1989; Verba Sapientiae), 232 tonality/polytonality, plainchant (in Prager Te Deum, De tempore, 1991), and old/archaic techniques (such as fauxbourdon in Cantico delle Creature, 1987). 233 With 225 Cf. Daubner, Orchesterwerke Petr Ebens, Cf. Cho, Constancy and Changes, 142, 165. Nevertheless, it may be noted that for a short passage Eben did include a solo speaking voice already in his symphonic movement Vox clamantis (1969), a piece in which he employed a number of avant-garde techniques. 227 Cf. Daubner, Orchesterwerke Petr Ebens, 28. In Eben s instrumental music the ambitus can be as wide as two octaves. When writing for the human voice, the ambitus is more limited, but the general tendency of using larger intervals and a larger ambitus remains. In his choir music, Eben occasionally wrote continuous melodies which are distributed to several voice parts and thus could cover a larger ambitus than any single voice part. However, this feature is used extensively only in his later works (cf. Cho, Constancy and Changes, 35), and it does not occur in the three liturgical works being discussed here. 228 Cf. Daubner, Orchesterwerke Petr Ebens, Cf. Daubner, Orchesterwerke Petr Ebens, Cf. Matova, Petr Eben s Oratorio, Cf. Cho, Constancy and Changes, 112, 125, Cf. Cho, Constancy and Changes, 106, 120, Cf. Cho, Constancy and Changes,

95 regard to the latter, antiphonal writing is especially interesting because it is rooted in practices of ancient liturgical singing. Therefore its usage links to the tradition of liturgical music (as well as to Renaissance polychoral music) and is a successful way of integrating the singing congregation. At the same time it is a technique which again is characteristic of Eben s language and which he also uses in non-liturgical music (for example in Prager Te Deum, and De tempore). 234 In case of performing Deutsches Ordinarium with choir and/or cantor, the whole cycle could be added to the category old techniques (antiphonal). Eben also shows a way of avoiding the inherent danger of music becoming too repetitive and therefore boring, when a short response is used to include the congregation in an antiphonal structure: In Kyrie of Missa cum populo the congregation s short motif at times occurs transposed, differently harmonized (as does the antiphon of the first psalm of Marien-Vesper), in augmentation, or supported by various instrumental sections. Generally speaking, Deutsches Ordinarium, Marien-Vesper, and Missa cum populo all clearly show Peter Eben s musical language, even if he himself talks of stylistic considerations in composing for the congregation when commenting on Marien-Vesper: The text set to music there is in the mellifluous Catalan language, to enable members of the congregation to join in the singing at several places. Therefore also this work was styled in an accessible musical idiom, with the organ put in charge of the harmonically sharper passages. 235 By the hint with the organ put in charge of the harmonically sharper passages, he provides the key to writing stylistically advanced music even when the congregation is included: More demanding passages are entrusted to trained performers; the more trained performers are available, the less elementary the music needs to be written. This can clearly be seen by comparing Missa cum populo to Deutsches Ordinarium, where more demanding stylistic features such as polytonality, bi-rhythmic structures, and juxtaposition of triads are missing, and thus the harmonic and melodic language is milder. Yet, Eben manages to employ clearly noticeable hallmarks of his style such as tertian progressions, melodic tritons, chromatic alterations of notes (often affecting the third), and parallel chords even so. For very few passages Eben abandons most or all of those characteristics, retreating to a tonal/modal style with mainly functional triadic or seventh chord harmonization and without notes foreign to the scale. 236 Through his aesthetic convictions, his positive view on the liturgical reform, 237 his communicative musical language, and his personal interest in composing for the singing congregation, Petr Eben successfully combined artistic demands with functional and practical needs of liturgical music. His impressive achievements in writing for the liturgy 234 Cf. Cho, Constancy and Changes, 65, Quoted after the booklet accompanying the CD Petr Eben: Religious Works (1992; Supraphon ), 2 (no pagination). 236 These passages include Agnus Dei and a short section in Credo of Deutsches Ordinarium as well as the first antiphon of the first psalm (recurring antiphons are harmonized differently) and the antiphon of Magnificat of Marien-Vesper. 237 Cf. Praßl, Singende Kirche 41: 7. 95

96 after Vat. II can still serve as outstanding models for contemporary composers embarking on this road. Providing for the Active Participation of the Entire Assembly : Petr Eben s Liturgical Music with Congregational Participation Abstract Petr Eben was one of the few internationally renowned composers embracing the implications of the Second Vatican Council on writing music for the liturgy designed for the active participation of the entire congregation. He took up this challenge and succeeded in meeting both liturgical and artistic requirements. This paper discusses technical and aesthetic questions involved in composing for congregations and exemplifies these questions in analysing three works by Petr Eben: Deutsches Ordinarium (1965), Marien-Vesper (1968) and Missa cum populo ( ). Určeno pro aktivní spoluúčast celého shromáždění : liturgická hudba skladatele Petra Ebena s účastí kongregace Abstrakt Petr Eben byl jedním z mála mezinárodně uznávaných skladatelů, kteří ve svém díle reflektovali požadavky Druhého vatikánského koncilu na kompozici liturgické hudby určené pro aktivní spoluúčast celé kongregace. Eben přijal zmíněné požadavky a úspěšně spojil liturgické a umělecké nároky. Studie rozebírá technické a estetické otázky související s kom pozicí hudby pro kongregaci; problematika je ilustrována na příkladu Ebenových děl: Deutsches Ordinarium (1965), Marien-Vesper (1968), and Missa cum populo ( ). Keywords 20 th century music; church music; congregational participation / participatio actuosa; Petr Eben; liturgical music; sacred music; Second Vatican Council; Deutsches Ordinarium; Marien-Vesper; Missa cum populo. Klíčová slova Hudba 20. století; chrámová hudba; spoluúčast kongregace / participatio actuosa; Petr Eben; liturgická hudba; duchovní hudba; Druhý vatikánský koncil; Deutsches Ordinarium; Marien-Vesper; Missa cum populo. 96

97 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 Odraz hudebních kontaktů olomouckých biskupů 18. století v kroměřížské hudební sbírce 238 Jana Spáčilová Záměrem předkládané studie není podat vyčerpávající informace o hudební sbírce Arcibiskupského zámku Kroměříž jako odrazu hudebních zájmů jejích pořizovatelů, nýbrž spíše upozornit na některé zajímavé hudebniny, které dokumentují šíři zahraničních hudeb ních kontaktů olomouckých biskupů v 18. století. Kroměřížská hudební sbírka je již dlouhou dobu známa muzikologům zabývajícím se hudbou baroka a klasicismu, a to přede vším ve dvou oblastech výzkumu. 239 V první řadě je neutuchající pozornost věnována kolekci hudebnin z majetku olomouckého biskupa Karla z Liechtensteinu-Castelcorna ( ), která představuje vzácný zdroj mnoha unikátních kompozic rakouských skladatelů druhé poloviny 17. století. 240 Pomyslný protipól představuje kroměřížská část hudební sbírky arcibiskupa Rudolfa Jana Habsburského ( ), která obsahuje mj. arcivévodovy úlohy z kompozice opravené Ludwigem van Beethoven. Jedná se o menší část původní Rudolfovy sbírky, dnes uchované ve vídeňském archívu Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. 241 Ve světle těchto dvou klíčových oblastí jsou hudebniny pocházející z mezi dobí, tj. z doby mezi léty cca 1700 až 1800, poněkud v pozadí. Avšak právě z tohoto období uchovává kroměřížská knihovna celou řadu hudebnin, významně doplňujících naše znalosti o migraci hudebního repertoáru ve střední Evropě v 18. století. Z hlediska kulturních vztahů Moravy a Itálie jsou nejzajímavější hudebniny spadající dobou svého vzniku do doby episkopátu Wolfganga Hannibala Schrattenbacha 238 Předkládaná studie je výstupem projektu finančně podpořeného Filozofickou fakultou Univerzity Palackého Olomouc (FPVC2015/15). 239 Jiří Sehnal, Die Musiksammlung des Erzbischöflichen Musikarchivs in Kremsier (Kroměříž), in Musikgeschichte zwischen Ost- und Westeuropa. Symphonik Musiksammlungen. Deutsche Musik im Osten, Bd. 10 (Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag, 1997), Jiří Sehnal a Jitřenka Pešková, Caroli de Liechtenstein-Castelcorno episcopi Olomucensis operum artis musicae collectio Cremsirii reservata (Praha: Národní knihovna ČR, 1998). 241 Susan Kagan, Archduke Rudolph, Beethoven s Patron, Pupil and Friend (Stuyvesant: Pendragon Press, 1988). 97

98 ( ), který před svým převzetím olomouckého biskupského úřadu pobýval dlouhou dobu v Itálii, mj. v letech ve funkci místokrále v Neapoli. V první řadě je to v nedávné době identifikovaná kolekce deseti chrámových skladeb italské provenience, zakoupená roku 1731 pro kroměřížský kolegiátní kostel sv. Mořice. 242 Nákup měl na starosti svatomořický varhaník a regenschori Anton Bernkopf (1675? 1747), jehož jménem je také podepsán inventář hudebnin vytvořený při té příležitosti. 243 Kolekce původně obsa hovala 18 skladeb, dnes jsou dochovány kompozice těchto skladatelů: Antonio Maria Bononcini (Kyrie a Gloria, Credo, Magnifi cat, dvoje Litanie), Antonio Maria Pacchioni (Te Deum, Dixit Dominus, Domine ad adjuvandum) a Francesco Peli (Kyrie a Gloria, Credo). 244 Posledně jmenovaný skladatel obstarání skladeb také zřejmě zprostředkoval, neboť roku 1731 podle všech indicií osobně pobýval na Moravě a uvedl v Kroměříži svoji odjinud neznámou operu Coronide a v Brně reprízu svého oratoria L ultima persecuzione di Saule contro Davidde. 245 Jako odraz hudebních kontaktů se Slezskem je možno vnímat unikátně dochované kroměřížské opisy čtyř skladeb Antonia Bioniho ( ), který působil ve 20. a 30. letech 18. století na různých místech střední Evropy, především na místě skladatele a impresária italské operní společnosti ve Vratislavi. Jsou to tři kantáty pro soprán a smyčce (Se non poss io, Innocente è il mio martire, Se non ti moro à lato) a árie De tanti fi di amanti pro tenor, vnější kritika pramenů naznačuje (minimálně v případě prvních tří) jejich vratislavský původ. 246 Přímý vztah Bioniho ke Kroměříži není sice prokázán, avšak vzhledem k výjimečnému postavení, které zaujímali italští umělci na dvoře biskupa Schrattenbacha, je dosti pravděpodobný. 247 V případě zmíněných skladeb se jedná bohužel o jediné hudební prameny, které by snad bylo možno vztáhnout ke Schrattenbachově dvorní kapele. Ostatní notové materiály (dvě desítky oper a více než 30 oratorií) jsou s výjimkou tří oratorních partitur uložených 242 Jana Spáčilová, Repertoár chrámové hudby v Kroměříži v roce Olomoucký biskup Schrattenbach a hudba vrcholného baroka [III], Opus musicum 37, No. 3 (2005): Compositiones musicae emptae anno 1731 ex pecunia sacristiae ad usum ecclesiae colleg. s. Mauritii Crembsirii et mihi infra scripto qua eiusdem ecclesiae directori musices consignatae. Viz Antonín Breitenbacher, Hudební archiv kolegiátního kostela sv. Mořice v Kroměříži, Časopis vlasteneckého spolku musejního v Olomouci 40 (1928), suppl., (1929), suppl., 43 (1930); 48 (1935), zde na s. 10. Originál se nepodařilo nalézt, pouze zkrácený soupis pod názvem Compositiones Musicae ex pecunia Sacristiae Consignatae (součást hudebniny CZ-KRa/A 970). 244 CZ-KRa/A 970 až A 973, A 1285, A 1286, A 1289, A 1290, A Jana Spáčilová, Hudba na dvoře olomouckého biskupa Schrattenbacha ( ). Příspěvek k libretistice barokní opery a oratoria (disertační práce, Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2006), CZ-KRa/A 4100 až A Srovnej Zuzana Veverková, Antonio Bioni a jeho kantáta Innocente v kroměřížské hudební sbírce (diplomová práce, Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2009). 247 K italským umělcům na Schrattenbachově dvoře nejnověji Jana Spáčilová, Soloists of the Opera Productions in Brno, Holešov, Kroměříž and Vyškov. Italian Opera Singers in Moravian Sources c , Part I., in Musicians Mobilities and Music Migrations in Early Modern Europe. From Source Research to Cultural Studies, eds. Gesa zu Nieden a Berthold Over, v tisku. 98

99 dnes v Berlíně a jednoho fragmentu v Oddělení dějin hudby Moravského zemského muzea ztraceny. 248 Vazby na Vídeň jako hlavní město monarchie jsou pochopitelně četnější. Předmětem zájmu se v minulosti staly kroměřížské opisy děl Josefa Haydna (částečně s falešnou autorskou atribucí) a Josefa Antonína Štěpána. 249 Výzkum kroměřížských hudebnin ve vztahu k vídeňským kopistům provedl A. Peter Brown v souvislosti se svojí prací na tematickém katalogu skladeb Carla Ordoneze. 250 Ve své práci identifikuje několik kroměřížských hudebnin jako dílo opisovačů Simona Haschke, Leopolda Eberla a Laurenta Lausche. 251 Významnější posun v této oblasti představuje výzkum Jiřího Sehnala, jeho zjištění však pro své publikování v českém jazyce bohužel zůstala bez širší mezinárodní odezvy. 252 Teprve v posledních letech dochází ke korekci starších hypotéz ohledně vídeňských kopistů v rámci výzkumného projektu Transferprozesse in der Musikkultur Wiens, : Musikalienmarkt, Bearbeitungspraxis, neues Publikum. 253 Jako odraz vídeňské hudební kultury je možno vnímat také několik hudebně dramatických kompozic uložených v Kroměříži, které dobou svého vzniku spadají do doby po roce Vesměs se jedná o nepříliš známé prameny, pozornosti dosud unikly z toho důvodu, že se jedná o součást tzv. Původní zámecké sbírky (PZS), která dosud není na rozdíl od kolekce biskupa Castelcorna zpracována v katalogu RISM a prakticky je velmi těžko dostupná, neboť nemá k dispozici ani použitelný lístkový katalog. 254 Hlavním účelem předkládaného textu je proto představení těchto hudebnin z hlediska vnější pramenné kritiky a pokus o zodpovězení otázky jejich provenience. 248 K identifikaci hudebních materiálů Schrattenbachovy dvorní kapely nejnověji Jana Spáčilová, Die Rezeption der italienischen Oper am Hofe des Olmützer Bischofs Schrattenbach, in The Eighteenth- Century Italian Opera Seria: Metamorphoses of the Opera in the Imperial Age [Colloquia Musicologica Brunensia, 42, 2007], eds. Petr Macek a Jana Perutková (Praha: KLP, 2013), s Georg Feder, Die Überlieferung und Verbreitung der handschriftlichen Quellen zu Haydns Werken, Haydn-Studien 1, No. 1 (1965): Peter A. Brown, Notes on some Eighteenth-Century Viennese Copyists, Journal of the American Musicological Society 34, No. 2 (1981): Jako kopistu označuje Brown také Josepha Georga Harolda, zde se však jednalo o majitele hudebnin. Děkuji Martinu Eyblovi za upozornění na tuto skutečnost. 252 Jiří Sehnal, Hudební kapela Antona Theodora Colloreda-Waldsee ( ) v Kroměříži a Olomouci, Hudební věda 13 (1976): Zkrácená verze: Die Musikkapelle des Olmützer Erzbischofs Anton Theodor Colloredo-Waldsee , Haydn Yearbook 10 (1978): Workshop Akteure und Netzwerke pořádaný v rámci tohoto projektu ve dnech v Brně se stal prvotním impulsem ke vzniku předkládané studie. 254 Část sbírky je podchycena v lístkovém katalogu vypracovaném ve 20. letech 20. století Karlem Vetter lem, který je uložený v ODH MZM. Přímo v Kroměříži je k dispozici pouze informativní katalog, který zdaleka nepostačuje moderním parametrům hudební katalogizace. Srovnej Magdalena Petrášová, Původní zámecká sbírka v Kroměříži. Katalog její dosud nezpracované části (diplomová práce, Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2011). 99

100 Chronologicky nejstarším dílem dle doby svého vzniku je La Passione di Gesù Cristo Signor nostro Ignaze Holzbauera. Oratorium na libreto Pietra Metastasia vzniklo v Mannheimu roku 1754, byla to jedna z prvních hudebně dramatických kompozic skladatele v novém působišti (do služeb kurfi řta Carla Theodora nastoupil 1753) a vůbec první jeho známé oratorium. Opis sestává z vázaného particella a jednotlivých hlasů, lze rozeznat několik kopistických rukou. 255 Pro hudebninu byly použity tři druhy papíru s vodoznaky: kozel v korunovaném oválu, tři půlměsíce a iniciály BT. Očividně se jedná o materiál k nějakému pozdějšímu nastudování, jak ukazuje oprava v duetu Pietra s Maddalenou a vpisky v Giovanniho partu. K tomuto provedení se patrně vztahují také jména sólistů uvedená na konci zpěvních hlasů: Monsieur Gsur na partu Giuseppe (bas) a Mademoiselle Teyberin na partu Maddaleny (soprán). Z tištěného libreta je doložena pouze jediná další repríza Holzbauerova Passione, a to 1757 ve Vídni. 256 Provedení se uskutečnilo v rámci postních koncertních akademií v Theater nächst der Burg, které se zde pravidelně konaly od roku Elisabeth Teyber byla zpěvačkou Burgtheater mezi léty , Monsieur Gsur zřejmě označuje vídeňského basistu a skladatele Tobiase Gsura (1726/ ). 258 Kroměřížský notový materiál se tedy s nejvyšší pravděpodobností vztahuje k tomuto vídeňskému provedení Holzbauerova oratoria. Další dvě oratoria Gioas Re di Giuda a La redenzione jsou dílem Georga Chris topha Wagenseila. Obě oratoria na libreta Pietra Metastasia vznikla roku 1755 ve Vídni, provedena byla opět v rámci postních koncertů v Burgtheater. Muzikologická literatura kroměřížské opisy dosud neeviduje. Gioas je dochován v partituře o dvou svazcích vyvázané v tzv. tureckém papíře. 259 Typ vazby silně připomíná partitury z hudební sbírky hraběte Jana Adama Questenberga ( ), které byly vázány u vídeňského knihvazače Johanna Rösslera. 260 Titulní list téměř doslova odpovídá partituře uložené ve Vídni včetně vročení Kopista je dle písařského duktu vídeňského původu, materiál nenese známky používání. Papír partitury obsahuje vodoznak tři půlměsíce a iniciály FA, pro předsádku byl použit papír s vodoznakem korunované dvojité W a iniciály AR. 255 CZ-KRa/A 2336 (I-C-11) partitura, A 2337 (I-C-12) party. La Passione di Gesù Cristo Signor nostro. Musica del Sig. Ignazio Holzbaur [!] M: d: C: d: S: A: E: 256 I-Bc/Lo.8076 (Wien, Marie Eve Schilgin, 1757). Další exemplář libreta CZ-Bm/B 371 (nedatovaný). 257 Výzkumem vídeňských akademií se v současné době intenzivně zabývá Marko Motnik, jemuž jsem zavázána za konzultování této problematiky a poskytnutí dosud nepublikovaných informací. 258 Dle dopisu Marko Motnika z CZ-KRa/A 2329 (I-C-4). Gioas Re Di Giuda. Azione Sacra Per Musica Anno La Poesia è del Sig. Abbate Pietro Metastasio Poeta di S: M: Cesarea, e Cattolica. La Musica è del Sig: Cristofforo Wagenseil Compositore di S: M: Cesarea, e Cattolica. 260 Jana Perutková, František Antonín Míča ve službách hraběte Questenberga a italská opera v Jaroměřících (Praha: KLP, 2011), A-Wn/Mus.Hs Mus (partitura, nekompletní, jen Prima Parte). Gioas Re di Giuda Azione Sacra Per Musica L Anno La Poesia è di Abbate Pietro Metastasio, Poeta di S: M: C: La Musica è di Cristoffro [!] Wagenseil, Compositore di S: M: C: 100

101 La Redenzione je dochováno v nevázané partituře opsané opět kopistou známým z vídeňských dvorních partitur (jiná ruka než Gioas, avšak velmi podobná) a dále v partech z pera různých písařů, jejichž duktus vídeňskou provenienci nenaznačuje. 262 Papír je opatřen vodoznakem tři půlměsíce s připojeným písmenem W a iniciálami AS. Partitura je datována 1759, ovšem při bližším pohledu je patrné, že pod poslední číslovkou 9 bylo původně 5 (tj. datum vzniku díla). 263 Na rozdíl od Gioase jde určitě o provozní materiál, na což ukazují jednak rozepsané kadence ve zpěvních partech, jednak záložky v partituře usnadňující v áriích otočení zpět na Da Capo (případně Dal Segno). Opravený letopočet 1759 se tedy patrně vztahuje k novému nastudování díla, místo a datum však nelze v tomto případě zjistit. Pokud se tato repríza odehrála ve Vídni, nebylo to na rozdíl od Holzbauerova oratoria v Burgtheater, neboť k roku 1759 zde není pořádání koncertních akademií doloženo jediné známé vídeňské oratorium z tohoto roku Isaccio figura del Redentore Giuseppe Bonna bylo dáváno v paláci vévody von Sachsen-Hildeburghausen. 264 Původ kroměřížského notového materiálu tedy prozatím zůstává neznámý. Při kolaci obou Wagenseilových oratorií s opisy uloženými v Österreichische Nationalbibliothek bylo zjištěno několik drobných rozdílů, zejména precizněji zaznamenané údaje o instrumentálním i pěveckém obsazení v kroměřížských partiturách. 265 Srovnání partitury Gioas s třetím existujícím exemplářem v rakouském benediktinském klášteře Kremsmünster bude předmětem dalšího výzkumu. 266 Čtvrté oratorium nemá obálku ani titulní list, proto je v kroměřížských katalozích uvedeno pouze jako Cain et Abel. 267 Analýzou textu bylo zjištěno, že se jedná o oratorium La Morte d Abele na libreto Pietra Metastasia. Autor hudby nebyl dosud určen, přičemž toto Metastasiovo libreto zhudebnilo více než 30 skladatelů. Prozatím byli vyloučeni Anto nio Caldara (Vídeň 1732), Leonardo Leo (Neapol 1732), Niccolò Piccini (Neapol 1758) a Domenico Fischietti (Praha 1763). Obsazení orchestru se smyčci, dvěma hoboji, dvěma hornami a obligátním fagotem napovídá o vzniku oratoria někdy před polovinou 18. století, další pátrání je však ztíženo tím, že k mnoha známým zhudebněním neexistují 262 CZ-KRa/A 2330a (I-C-5), partitura. La Redenzione Componimento Drammatico. L Anno 1759 [původně 1755]. La Poesia è del sig: Abbate Pietro Metastasio, Poeta di sua Maestà cesarea. La Musica è del Sig: Cristofforo Wagenseil Compositore di Camera di sua Maestà cesarea. 263 A-Wn/Mus.Hs Mus (partitura). La Redenzione Componimento Drammatico Per Musica. L Anno La Poesia è di Ab:te Pietro Metastasio Poeta di S: M: C: e Catt:a. La Musica è di Cristoffero Wagenseil Compositore di Camera di S: M: C: e Catt:a. 264 Dle dopisu Marko Motnika z Např. u Gioase v závěrečném sboru první části jsou ve vídeňské partituře pěvecké hlasy notovány na pěti řádcích nadepsaných: 2:i Soprani Soli, Soprano R[ipien]o, Alto, Tenore, Basso, zatímco v Kroměříži na šesti řádcích s nadpisem: Due Sop[rani] Primi, Due Sop[rani] Secondi, Coro [čtyřhlasý]. U La Redenzione je v kroměřížské partituře v úvodní Sinfonii navíc předpis Spiritoso a údaj Contrabassi u řádku pro basso continuo. Dále u prvního sboru jsou sólisté notováni zvlášť, zatímco ve Vídni jsou společně se sborem, atd. 266 A-KR/L 91 (partitura), G 14/42 (hlasy). 267 CZ-KRa/A 2334 (I-C-9). Hlasy, bez obálky. 101

102 hudební materiály. 268 Kroměřížský pramen obsahuje jednotlivé party opsané třemi písaři, jejichž duktus je odlišný od vídeňských opisovačů. Čtyři použité papíry jsou opatřeny vodoznaky: 1. korunované W, 2. tři půlměsíce, 3. kartuše s třemi hvězdami a korunované iniciály GF, 4. tři půlměsíce s nápisem REAL a neidentifikovatelnými iniciálami. Posledním oratoriem je Il Davide della valle di Terebintho Karla Ditterse von Dittersdorf. Oratorium na libreto Ignazia Pinta vzniklo roku 1771, bylo provedeno na zámku vratislavského biskupa Philippa Gottharda Schaffgotsche na Jánském Vrchu u Javor níka. 269 Jediná známá partitura je uložena v Královské knihovně v Kodani (pod názvem Davide e Gionata). 270 V Kroměříži sestává materiál ze dvou složek čistě opsaných partů. 271 Papír nese vodoznak kartuše s rovnoramenným křížem a iniciály LEW. Vzhledem k charakteru hudebniny je možno se domnívat, že se jedná o provozní materiál z premiéry oratoria na Jánském vrchu nebo jeho přímou kopii. Podle Oldřicha Pulkerta se má jednat o Dit tersdorfův autograf, s tímto tvrzením se však nelze ztotožnit. 272 Do Kroměříže se dostala hudebnina zřejmě díky samotnému autorovi, který toto město navštívil v září Oratorium bylo později v Kroměříži také provedeno, a to počátkem 80. let místními piaristy. 274 Složka partů obsahuje jednu zajímavou součást, která se může stát významným pramenem k biografii rakouských hudebníků působících ve Slezsku a na Moravě v druhé polovině 18. století. Je to tištěné libreto německého oratoria Der vor seinen meineydigen Sohn Absalom zu sterben verlangende David, provedeného v Opavě v minoritském chrámu 268 V úvahu připadají tito skladatelé: Lorenzo Bracci (1735); Antonio Galeazzi (1735), Innocenzo Gigli (1737); Domenico Valentini (1741); Niccolo Conti (1748); Carlo Ambrogio Meli (1748); Francesco Dolé (1752); Girolamo Abos (1754); Giuseppe Zonca (1754); Domenico Vannucci (1757, jako L ucci sione d Abele); Giovanni Costanzi (1758); Antonio Gaetano Pampani (1758); Agnelo Seaglies (1759); Pietro Crispi (1763); Giovanni Vincenzio Meucci (1766); Giuseppe Calegari (1769); Jan Antonín Koželuh (1776). K dataci vzniku ante quem viz níže. 269 K osobnosti libretisty a italského sekretáře biskupa Schaffgotsche Ignatia Pinta nejnověji Franz Heiduk, Salvatore Ignatius Pintus. Vita minutatim, Jesenicko 9 (2008): Davide e Gionata. Oratorio del Sigr. de Dittersdorf. DK-Kk/mu , RISM ID no CZ-KRa/ A 2335 (I-C-10), party. Il Davide nella valle di Terebinto. Parte I.a. Oratorio Sacro per Musica. Interlocutori Davide. Canto I:mo in veste da Pastore, è con Fionda. Saule. Tenore. Rè d Israele. Gionata. Canto II:o Figlio di Saule. Abner. Basso. Prefetto della Milizia. Eliabbo. Alto. Fratello di Davide. Con Violini due. Oboe due. Flauto solo. Corni due. Trombe due. Timpani. Viole due. e Fondamento. Di Carlo de Dittersdorf. 272 Oldřich Pulkert, Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf Autographen, in Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf. Z życia i twórczości muzycznej, ed. Piotr Tarlinski a Hubert Unverricht (Opole 2000), Sehnal, Hudební kapela Colloreda-Waldsee, Provedeno , údajně v německém jazyce. Již o rok dříve bylo ale piaristy provedeno nej menované italské oratorium od Dittersdorfa ( ). OA Kroměříž, Fond B e, 188/7. Anmer kungen aus den Erlebnissen des Liechtensteinschen Seminars. Srovnej Sehnal, Hudební kapela Collo - reda-waldsee. 102

103 sv. Ducha na Velký pátek roku Jako skladatel je uveden Anton Albrechtsberger, der Zeit Capell-Meister in Grätz. Toto libreto se již stalo předmětem muzikologického zájmu, avšak bylo chybně prezentováno: v soupisu Dittersdorfových skladeb v novém vydání MGG je omylem vztaženo k Dittersdorfovu Davidovi. 276 Autor hesla Oldřich Pulkert (či jeho zdroj) si patrně nevšiml toho, že přestože tisk vypadá na první pohled jako německá verze latinského Pintova libreta, odkazuje k provedení zcela jiného díla odlišného skladatele. Jediná správná datace vzniku Dittersdorfova oratoria je 1771, jak ukazuje tisk libreta z premiéry, uložený např. v Oddělení dějin hudby MZM. 277 Nově identifikované německé oratorní libreto je přímým dokladem toho, že rakouský skladatel Anton Albrechtsberger (* Klosterneuburg 1729), bratr známějšího Johanna Georga, působil ještě v dubnu 1768 v Hradci nad Moravicí jako kapelník barona Karla Wolfganga von Neffzern. Tamní dvorní kapela byla na značné úrovni, byla schopna provádět i opery. 278 Neffzernové vlastnili Hradec do roku 1778, poté jej prodali Janu Karlu Lichnovskému, známému pro svůj vztah k Beethovenovi (skladatel tento zámek také několikrát navštívil). Anton Albrechtsberger ovšem z Neffzernových služeb odešel ještě v průběhu prvního půlroku 1768, neboť na počátku července je již jmenován der Zeit Bischöffliche Capell-Meister in Wiennerisch-Neustadt (na titulním listě libreta oratoria provedeného u minoritů v Brně k oslavám svatořečení Josefa Kopertinského). 279 Titul biskupského kapelníka byl ale zřejmě jen formální, neboť Albrechtsberger v Brně pobýval ještě roku 1772, jak uvádí ve své žádosti o místo choralisty katedrály sv. Václava v Olomouci. 280 Vztahy tohoto skladatele k Moravě a Slezsku tedy byly zřejmě dosti úzké a jistě by zasluhovaly další pozornost. Poslední hudebnina doplňující naše znalosti o odrazu vídeňské hudební kultury v Kroměříži již nepatří do oboru oratoria, je to kantáta pro soprán a smyčce s názvem Il Nerone. 281 Jako autor je uveden Pergolese, autorství však není zcela jasné, neboť RISM eviduje další opis v Santini Bibliothek v Münsteru pod jménem Cavaliere Ra nieri 275 CZ-KRa/ A Der Vor seinen meineydigen Sohn Absalom zu sterben verlangende David, Ein Vorbild Unsers Vor das menschliche Geschlecht sterbenden Seeligmachers Jesu Christi Dem Andäch tigen Christen zu Behertzigung der Geheimnussen, Dessen bitteren Leydens in einem Sing-Spiel vorgestellet Bey denen W. W. E. E. P. P. Minoriten zum Heil. Geist in Troppau am Charfreytag den 1. sten April Verfaßter, In die Music versetzt, von Herrn Antonio Albrechtsberger, der Zeit Capell-Meister in Grätz. Und In demüthigster Sumbission dediciret. 276 Oldřich Pulkert, Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, in MGG, Zweite Auflage, Personenteil, Bd. 5, sl CZ-Bm/B Např. Hasseho intermezzo tragico Piramo e Tisbe, dle libreta vytištěného 1771 v Opavě. Jan Racek, Beethoven a české země (Praha: SPN 1964), Sing-Spiel über das Leben des gegen Gott Lieb-vollen heiligen Joseph von Copertin, provedení v Brně , tisk Opava 1768, CZ-Bk/ Jiří Sehnal, Hudba v olomoucké katedrále v 17. a 18. století (Brno: Moravské zemské muzeum, 1988), CZ-KRa/A 2328, partitura. Il Nerone. Cantata a Voci Sola Con Strumenti [jná ruka:] Pergolese. 103

104 Napolitano (v tomto pramenu je navíc obsažena i krátká předehra). 282 Písař je opět evidentně vídeňský, papír nese vodoznak kartuše s třemi hvězdami a iniciály AHF. Přímá návaznost na vídeňský hudební život je podpořena přípiskem al Barone du Beine na titulním listě partitury. Joseph Philipp du Beine Malchamps ( ) byl významným vídeňským sběratelem a hudebním mecenášem, pozůstatky jeho sbírky jsou dnes roztroušeny po celé Evropě (zejména ve Vídni a Berlíně). Jméno Giovanniho Battisty Pergolesiho ( ) je očividně napsáno stejnou rukou jako vlastnický přípisek. K zodpovězení otázky, jak se pojednávané hudebniny dostaly do Kroměříže, se jako účelné ukazuje sledování historických inventářů této sbírky. Pro naše zkoumání jsou rele vantní pozůstalostní inventáře biskupů Leopolda z Egkhu a Hungersbachu (1761), 283 Maxmiliána Hamiltona (1776) 284 a arcibiskupa Antona Theodora Colloreda-Waldsee (1811). 285 K nim je možno přiřadit inventář olomouckého kanovníka a probošta v Brně Jana Matyáše z Thurnu a Valsassiny (1747). 286 Valsassinův inventář eviduje celou řadu oper a oratorií, mj. také La Morte d Abele bez uvedení autora. Záznam ale není možno vztáhnout ke kroměřížskému anonymnímu oratoriu, neboť údaj 1 fascikl o 65 listech neodpovídá charakteru materiálu (19 hlasů o 267 listech). Pokud spolu tyto informace vůbec souvisejí, muselo se v případě záznamu ve Valsassinově inventáři jednat o partituru, která je dnes ztracena, zatímco party se neznámou cestou dostaly do Kroměříže. 287 Chronologicky další inventář biskupa Egkha zaznamenává v žánru oratorií pouze tři kusy: Natal di Giove blíže neznámého Bucholtze (ve skutečnosti je to serenata na text Pietra Metastasia), oratorium Antonia Caldary a jedno nejmenované oratorium získané od hraběte Františka Antonína Rottala, dalšího významného moravského hudebního mecenáše. 288 Hudebniny se dnes v Kroměříži nenacházejí, ačkoliv některé další skladby z Ekghovy doby zde jsou dochovány. 282 D-MÜs/SANT Hs 3373 (RISM ID no.: ). Určení díla je ovšem chybné, titul uveden jako Il Herone a jako autor označen Giovanni Simone Ranieri (c ), což je vzhledem k hudeb nímu jazyku díla nesmysl. 283 Zemský archiv v Opavě, pobočka Olomouc (ZAOO), fond Arcibiskupství Olomouc, karton 1816, sign. C 46. Srovnej Jiří Sehnal, Das Musikinventar des Olmützer Bischofs Leopold Egk aus dem Jahre 1760 als Quelle vorklassischer Instrumentalmusik, Acta musicologica 29 (1972): ZAOO, fond Metropolitní kapitula Olomouc, karton 214, sign. F a 9/9, inv. č Srovnej Jiří Seh nal, Die Musikkapelle des Olmützer Bischofs Maximilian Hamilton ( ), Die Musikforschung 24 (1971): Moravský zemský archiv, fond C 9, sign. 13 B, inv. č. 70, 2. část, f Sehnal, Hudební kapela Colloreda-Waldsee. 286 ZAOO, fond Metropolitní kapitula Olomouc, karton 870, sign. 9a 91/1, , f , 313. Srovnej Jiří Sehnal, Nové poznatky k dějinám hudby na Moravě v 17. a 18. století, Časopis Moravského musea 60 (1975): Hypotézu o vztahu obou pramenů jsem nastínila ve stati Barokní hudba v Olomouci, in Olomoucké baroko III. Výtvarná kultura let Historie a kultura (Olomouc: Muzeum umění, 2011), Oratoria. Natal di Giove, Authore Buchholtz. Aliud Authore Caldara. Aliud von Grafen Rothall. 104

105 Pozůstalostní soupis biskupa Hamiltona zaznamenává [Wagenseilische] Oratoria Není jasné, proč se záznam nachází v oddílu skladeb zděděných po Egkhovi, protože předešlý inventář jak jsme viděli nic podobného neeviduje. Pokud se údaj vztahuje k Wagenseilovu Gioas a Redenzione, vyvstává další otázka: kam se poděla tři další jeho oratoria, když Wagenseil kromě dvou jmenovaných napsal jen jediné další (Il roveto di Mosè, Wien 1756)? 290 Daleko pravděpodobnější vysvětlení je to, že pod tímto záznamem se ve skutečnosti skrývá všech pět do dnešních dnů v Kroměříži uchovaných oratorií. To, že pisatelé pozůstalostních soupisů olomouckých biskupů nebyli v hudebním oboru příliš zběhlí, dokládá i následující inventář arcibiskupa Colloreda-Waldsee. Zde je pod žánr oratoria zařazen pouze Dittersdorfův Il Davide, ostatní čtyři oratoria jsou evidována jako opery. 291 Přiřazení všech pěti oratorií Wagenseilovi je tedy snadno vysvětlitelné omylem katalogizátora. Pokud by bylo možno brát rok 1776 jako datum ante quem, mohlo by to pomoci také při dohledávání autora La Morte d Abele, neboť okruh možných skladatelů se výrazně zužuje. Předkládané informace představují pouze první vhled do výzkumu, jehož výsledkem by měl být pokud možno co nejúplnější pohled na hudbu na dvoře olomouckých biskupů 18. století v kontextu střední Evropy. Přirozený magnetismus hlavního města Vídně (mini málně pro druhou polovinu 18. století) je možno vidět nejen ve značném zastoupení skladeb z vídeňských opisovačských dílen, ale také v návaznosti kroměřížských hudebnin na tradici duchovních koncertů ve vídeňském Burgtheater. Přímým pozůstatkem vídeň ského provedení roku 1757 je určitě partitura a party Holzbauerova La Passione, kde zaznamenaná jména zpěváků dokonce osvětlují dosud neznámé sólistické obsazení. K tradici vídeňských concerti spirituali odkazují také obě partitury Wagenseilových oratorií, premiérovaných zde roku Charakter materiálu k La Redenzione napovídá o repríze roku 1759, místo prozatím nebylo určeno. Tato hudebnina ale v některých detailech významně doplňuje partituru uloženou ve Vídni, stejně jako Gioas re di Giuda (na rozdíl od Vídně dochovaný kompletně). Party Dittersdorfova Il Davide oproti tomu ukazují hudební kontakty olomouckého biskupského dvora opačným směrem, tj. k rakouskému Slezsku. Vzhledem ke skladatelově doložené návštěvě Kroměříže a následnému provedení jmenovaného oratoria zdejšími piaristy nelze očividně o jakémkoli vztahu k Vídni uvažovat. Otázka doposud anonymního La Morte d Abele zůstává otevřená. 289 Ve skutečnosti zní záznam dtto Oratoria 5, přičemž dtto se vztahuje k údaji Wagenseilische uvedeném na předchozím řádku. Záznam se nachází v oddílu Symphonien nach Ihro Hochfürstl. Gnaden Bischofen von Eckh. 290 Nedávno objevené Wagenseilovy německé duchovní skladby (oratorium Mater dolorum, das ist: die Schmerzhafte Mutter a kantátové cykly k poctě sv. Ignáce a sv. Františka Xaverského) nelze zřejmě v této souvislosti uvažovat. Srovnej Ladislav Kačic, Schuldramen und Oratorien bei den Preßburger Jesuiten im 18. Jahrhundert, Musigologica Brunensia 49, No. 1 (2014), Oratorien. Authore de Dittersdorf, 2 Theile il Davide Opern. Authore Holzbauer la Passione di Jesu Christo. [ ] 186. Christophore Wagenseil la Redenzione Detto Detto Detto be tittult: Gioas Re di Giuda Von unbekannten Author Abel et Caino. 105

106 Při zkoumání vztahu Kroměříže (resp. Olomouce a dalších biskupských sídel) k okolním hudebním centrům je nutno vycházet z faktu, že zdejší biskupové jako nejvyšší představitelé duchovní aristokracie již ze své podstaty překračovali jak lokální, tak národnostní hranice. Mnohovrstevnatost profesních i osobních vazeb se v hudební rovině mohla projevovat v rozličných podobách, z nichž způsoby získávání hudebnin bohužel patří k těm nejméně postižitelným. Na druhou stranu, právě dochované hudební prameny patří k nejcennějším dokladům širokých kulturních kontaktů Moravy v 18. století. Reflection on Musical Contacts of Olomouc Bishops from the 18 th Century in the Kroměříž Music Collection Abstract The study deals with a number of musical manuscripts in the collection of the Archbishop s châ teau in Kroměříž, documenting the cross-border musical contacts of the Olomouc bishops in the 18 th century. At the centre of attention are materials for fi ve oratorios (scores and parts), which the professional public has not engaged with in detail to date (Holzbauer: La Passione di Gesù Cristo, Wagenseil: Gioas, Re di Giuda, La Redenzione, Anonymous: La Morte d Abele, Dittersdorf: Il Davide). Three of these oratorios are directly connected with the Lenten musical academies held in the Vienna Burgtheater in the 1750s, in which specifically in the case of Holzbauer s oratorio these evidently concerned materials from the production in Odraz hudebních kontaktů olomouckých biskupů 18. století v kroměřížské hudební sbírce Abstrakt Studie pojednává o několika hudebninách ve sbírce Arcibiskupského zámku Kroměříž dokumentujících přeshraniční hudební kontakty olomouckých biskupů v 18. století. V centru pozornosti stojí materiály k pěti oratoriím, jimiž se odborná veřejnost dosud blíže nezabývala (Holzbauer: La Passione di Gesù Cristo, Wagenseil: Gioas, Re di Giuda, La Redenzione, Anonym: La Morte d Abele, Dittersdorf: Il Davide). Tři z těchto oratorií mají přímou souvislost s postními hudebními akademiemi pořádanými ve vídeňském Burgtheater v padesátých letech 18. století, přičemž v případě Holzbauerova oratoria jde zřejmě o materiály z provedení v roce

107 Keywords Oratorio; musical source; inventory; Kroměříž; Ignaz Holzbauer; Georg Christoph Wagenseil; Karl Dittersdorf; Anton Albrechtsberger. Klíčová slova Oratorium; hudební pramen; inventář; Kroměříž; Ignaz Holzbauer; Georg Christoph Wagen seil; Karl Dittersdorf; Anton Albrechtsberger. 107

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109 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 Hans Mersmann and the Analysis of the New Music 292 Martina Stratilková The scope of Hans Mersmann s ( ) research was very wide. It ranged from the study of folk song to treatises on classical music, and theoretical texts and considerations about New Music occupied a prominent position in it. Mersmann became an important figure of Melos, a journal focusing on New Music, which he headed in the years as the editor-in-chief. 293 And at the start of the 1920s his attitude towards the theoretical apprehension of musical structure and musical style was formed. In his first study on the phenomenology of music he outlined his view of the structural apprehension of a musical work, which he later presented at the Second Congress for Aesthetics and General Art Theory (held in 1924) and formulated comprehensively in Angewandte Musikästhetik in Mersmann found the main organisational principle of the musical process in force and its dynamic transformations occurring within a certain context. Music encompasses two dimensions forming a background for there being happening something. The fi rst dimension, which can also be treated as horizontal and as temporality, has its source in nature and comprises tone, the other, which is vertical and leads to spatiality, originates in the will of the spiritual being the composer. The horizontal dimension is expressed by force which performs the motion forwards (centrifugal force), the vertical dimension bestows restrictions upon the pushing flow (centripetal force) and shapes the otherwise boundless stream. Although Mersmann himself conceded that defining the dimension of space in music is more difficult than it is in the case of force, he at least expressed the higher role of negative delineation, which means that the dimension of space is what 292 This article was published under the project of the Research Support Foundation of the Faculty of Arts, Palacký University Olomouc, entitled Phenomenological Analysis of Music (registration number FPVC2013/14). 293 A number of writings appeared on the topic of New Music in the 1920s, guided mainly by Paul Bekker s book from 1919 (Neue Musik). 109

110 denies musical force. 294 In Mersmann s concept force can be understood as an energy which, in addition to being able to designate weight (as, for example, the force of the tonic), drives the musical flow towards its continuation in the direction of the future and towards greater power. If a place appears in the musical structure which divides the musical flow, reduces its intensity, and makes it regular (for example, cadence, metre, repeated tones, or tones from one harmonic function), the significance of the spatial dimension grows. The individual musical elements also differ in the extent to which they express the force dimension or in which they tend to include the category of space. Melody expresses force to the greatest extent, harmony does so to a lesser extent, and rhythm does it to the smallest extent. This dualism of forces creates tension, which yields in a form-building process. 295 As a result Mersmann saw the musical work as the sum of the functions and forces included in it. 296 Mersmann also specified the nature of the force process as the opposition of the inner tension of expansive and centripetal forces, 297 or the inner tension of a song arising from falling and increasing forces. 298 This is because force processes constitute the essence of music, and so phenomenological aesthetics [ ] views the content of music in the sum of its tectonic elements. 299 Mersmann offered separate explications of the individual elements of musical structure, among which he dis tinguished the primary (melody, harmony, rhythm) and secondary (dynamic, agogics, timbre) ones. His main aim became the identification of the tension and force potential that tones bear. For example, in the context of melody he observed the force potential of individual aspects of the actual pitch intervals their size and direction and the extent of their fusion (reminiscent of Stumpf s concept of consonance) and also the force potential of higher melodic formations, which he referred to as units or wholes ( melodic units and melodic wholes ). 300 For example, an ascending melodic line bears a high level of tension, in the same way as large intervals with a low quality of fusion. And so the force moments, which Mersmann called tectonics or tectonic elements, grow to higher levels of division of the course of the musical work: The sum of forces [ ] is contained in the development of elements in the direction towards form and content. 301 He believed 294 These concepts are not without difficulties, mainly that of space and its role for the definition of form, as is outlined in Wolfgang Krebs, Innere Dynamik und Energetik in Ernst Kurths Musiktheorie (Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 1998), Mersmann admitted that to define the vertical dimension is quite harder because of its essentially negative nature it binds the forces together while turning them backwards. 296 Hans Mersmann, Zur Phänomenologie der Musik, Zeitschrift für Ästhetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft 19, Nos. 1 4 (1925): Hans Mersmann, Angewandte Musikästhetik (Berlin: Hesse, 1926), Ibid., Mersmann, Zur Phänomenologie der Musik, Hans Mersmann, Versuch einer Phänomenologie der Musik, Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 5, Nos. 4 5 ( ): Ibid.,

111 that the phenomenology of music represented an aesthetics of form. 302 The relationship of the force and apprehension of form here is highly internal: The living force is in itself also a living form. 303 Mersmann also attempted to take into account the aspect of unity and integrity because we should conceive of music, which is the object of our perception, as a whole. The notion of the musical work as organism, encompassing the whole of the work, illustrates this clearly. And accordingly the goal of analysis is synthesis. 304 And yet Mersmann s analytical approach is derived from the analytical grasping of individual unique phenomena and synthetic insight into what is typical. 305 This means that analysis is implemented in two steps, of which the first, preparatory enquiry, 306 should loosen the forces operating together in the artwork from their penetration and to understand with the highest possible clarity the structure of each of these forces individually. 307 So in addition to the primary and secondary elements, it is tectonic relations, form content, the form process, the content process (outside the tectonic framework), style, and expression which complement the range of individual aspects of the force process in a musical work. And the goal of the analysis then consists of revealing the total sum of tensions ( Gesamtspannung ). 308 Mersmann then seeks out resources for the expression or formulation of the analysis, which he sees in graphic depiction. This naturally relates to music itself as its translation. But of course the advantage of graphic representation is its synthetic character, which corresponds to the aim of musical analysis. But this method of analysis is also hardly without any doubts. Whereas music is a complex of sound qualities and their relations, the resulting categories reduce this richness extensively. 309 But one must ask whether in the results of his work Mersmann did not indeed depart from his dynamic standpoint when he created diagrams of standardised courses of a musical work when, for example, he found a sequence of three tones only quantitatively different from a three-movement sonata, because the reference to direct experience drops rapidly with this Ibid., Mersmann, Angewandte Musikästhetik, Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., And at least for tonal music this focus on the direction of musical movement provides commonalities with Schenkerian analysis. Hermann Beck, aware of some proximity between Mersmann and Schenker, also doubted about the meaningfulness of Mersmann s analytical approach. Cf. Hermann Beck, Methoden der Werkanalyse in Musikgeschichte und Gegenwart (Wilhelmhaven: Heinrichshofen, ), Daniel M. Grimley, who took inspiration in Mersmann s theory for his analysis of Carl Niel sen s Symfony no. 3 (Sinfonia espansiva), also raised the objection toward a schematic character of Mersmann s charts and subjective analytical clues. Daniel M. Grimley, Carl Nielsen and the Idea of 111

112 According to Mersmann, analysis constitutes an important part of the comprehensive evaluation of a musical work. This is indicated by the name of his work Angewandte Musikästhetik, which represents the aesthetic principles of music in their use for a work of music, but so does the study of the musical aesthetics of value, in which Mersmann postulates structural complexity as a condition for aesthetic value: but poorly valued or valueless music conveys only slight incentives which are pronounced in the simplest forms, 311 and we usually analyse valuable music. 312 And so analysis starts to work closely with evaluation because it should establish subsequently the felt value. 313 Of course, Mersmann s uncompromising standpoint also contains functional differentiation because Mersmann illustrates it using examples of so-called Gebrauchsmusik. So one must ask which criteria should be applied to this music. 314 We have no reason to consider all music with a simple structure as being worthless only that to which the criteria of artistic creativity apply (for example, not to folk music). Then, of course, according to Mersmann, we apply the aspect of complexity polyphony always has greater value than homophony; in terms of value forms of open development ( Entwicklungsformen, for example, the rondo) eclipse forms of closed development ( Ablaufsformen ), based on simple repetition in the same way as the development of motivic-thematic material surpasses a theme that is just repeated. And because in music analysis the notion of form appears to be the basis, 315 in grasping a concrete musical work it is necessary to understand the uniqueness of its form. So in knowing the unique solution of form treatment, 316 in which Mersmann appreciated August Halm and Ernst Kurth as its forerunners, we come close to its meaning and value. While determining the individual form of a musical work can be quite difficult in case of New Music, it seems to be concluded, that so will be its evaluation. But we should not give up aiming at it. 317 Here Mersmann denounces sharp criticisms of Modernism (New York: Boydell, 2010), 119. This somewhat simplicist graphic mode of demonstrations can have its roots in teaching experience with amateurs, which Mersmann had, as he himself is saying with regard to the graphs. On the other hand it is just this circumstance what could make Mersmann sensitive to grasp music as immediately understood in perception. Similar context of teaching experience could also become decisive for other energeticists, as Rothfarb has noted. Cf. Lee Rothfarb, Energetics, in The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory, ed. Thomas Street Christensen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), , here Hans Mersmann, Versuch einer musikalischen Wertästhetik, Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 17, No. 1 (1935): Ibid., Ibid., Carl Dahlhaus, Trivial Music (Trivialmusik), in Bad Music: The Music We Love to Hate, ed. Christopher J. Washburne and Maiken Derno (New York London: Routledge, 2004), Hans Mersmann, Zur Geschichte des Formbegriffs, Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters für (1931): 32 47, here This objective also holds true for classical music of W. A. Mozart, for example. Cf. ibid. 317 On the basis of the entirely new developmental highness in comparison with Bartok s earlier compositions, Mersmann appreciated Bartok s third and fourth string quartets, the organic constructivist 112

113 New Music, lead by prejudices. Traditional classic music enjoys positive attitudes and quite often this comes from emotional sources and intellectual laziness. It provides us with safety according to its values (the span of positive or negative evaluations is not as wide as with New Music), we are used to it, though argument supporting it may be rather emotional and subjective. 318 The critics should open their minds for fresh musical experiences and underlay their judgements with analytical insights. If we return again to the issue of European western music, we see that in the course of history it primarily displays a growth in the internal complexity of musical structure. But further development went in the direction of the individual components of musical structure becoming independent, towards unique and unrepeatable solutions of musical form. In an article published in 1962 Mersmann expressed the opinion that via the concept outlined above of form as the result of the opposing internal forces of a musical work it was possible to analyse the music of the period It is not possible to include the New Music, which does not merely represent a new style, but which proclaims a new epoch. In the article he then writes about the individual components of musical structure and specifies its transformations in three phases of development in the twentieth century. So is it possible to analytically apprehend the music of the twentieth century only via the characteristics of its individual components? It would appear so. But Mersmann s earlier assertion that the aim of analysis is a synthetic apprehension of musical structure following the understanding of individual components can hardly apply. Moreover, in a book published in 1938, he expanded his assertion about the essence of the musical process in confl ict forces to cover music in general: But even when the grammar of mu sical language changes, in the end its content remains the same: whether the voices are connected by harmonic function or pure sound, whether the rhythmic tensions are absolute or subject to metre, whether the course of the form is unique or corresponds to fixed laws, music always remains a transforming succession of an increasing and falling, pushing and loosening, compressing and releasing process, an incomparably fragile web of mutually fluctuating forces. 319 After the publication of Bekker s Neue Musik (1919) and the launch of the magazine Melos, focusing on contemporary musical work, Mersmann quite naturally tackled questions of a specific nature concerning the New Music, as well as its reception and commensurate means of investigation. He was aware that only a small group were seeking out, creating, and supporting the New Music, because listening to it was demanding and it disappointed the regular expectations of the audience. But he emphasised that it was practices with regard to thematic process and form. Cf. Hans Mersmann, Bela Bartoks Drittes und Viertes Streichquartets, Melos 8, No. 11 (1929): It may be added that Mersmann himself could strengthen this tendency by devoting his writings to Mozart or Beethoven, which can be viewed not only as tenets of traditional musicology (dealing with the concept of master work), but also as consequences of the German cultural region, its magnitude and influence. Cf. Lubomír Spurný, Hábova Musik der Freiheit pohledem německy píšící muzikologie, Musicologica Brunensia 44, Nos. 1 2 (2009): , here Hans Mersmann, Musikhören (Potsdam: Sanssouci, 1938),

114 a transitional period because he considered the New Music to be a historical necessity, also fulfilled in a comparable manner in other fields of art. 320 In his writings he also presented the aspect of style in the context of the periodisation of music history and he also showed how society s approach to music had developed historically: Beethoven brought the personal standpoint of the composer to musical creation, and the Romantics made it subjective. From Beethoven on there is a constant reduction in the presence of the common (and also social) world, recast into music, and in the New Music this common world reached the most imperceptible dimensions. But music arrived at this state in a logical way ( it also lies in its essence ). 321 In the twenties Mersmann published his work on musical phenomenology and also two books and other short studies on the New Music in which he primarily analysed the musical structural properties of this music. One key moment in the development of Western European music around 1900 was Impressionism, and in his later work Mersmann stated quite uncompromisingly: Impressionism is the end. 322 But naturally primarily in relation to the German area, he also described the period as dissolution of romantic style. 323 And he characterised both styles as separation of forces, 324 which is also derived from the core properties of the New Music, i.e. from the switch from tonality. But of course Impressionism does not bring with it full atonality, only a release of tonal relations. More than anything else it represents a transitional period, and, according to Mersmann, the force relations in this type of music did not stand much of a chance of having a long lifespan their expressive possibilities were soon exhausted. As has already been stated, the first phase of musical analysis consists of the unbinding of the individual aspects (elements) from musical structure and the evaluation of their force characteristics and potential. Over the course of the nineteenth century they acquired ever more individual forms. Elements were opened towards the ultimate possibilities of delicate expression. 325 But of course the language of the New Music brought ever greater refinement. In any case the older music was based on the mutual relations between the various aspects of musical structure. Then in the course of musical development these relations underwent a certain evolution in which they became constitutive of music and stabilised in it: In older music the elements stand in the closest relationships. They are not only relationships of gravity, but primordial bindings. The elements build an indissoluble unity [ ] 326 In accordance with the contemporary significance of the gestalt approach, the most significant relationship is directed towards the whole. Every one of the elements is only a function of a common force standing above it and condi- 320 Hans Mersmann, Die geistigen Werte der neuen Musik, Melos 10, Nos. 8 9 (1931): Hans Mersmann, Musikalische Kulturfragen, Melos 1, No. 2 (1920): Mersmann, Musikhören, Hans Mersmann, Musik der Gegenwart (Berlin: Julius Bard, 1924), Mersmann, Musik der Gegenwart, Ibid., Hans Mersmann, Die Tonsprache der neuen Musik (Mainz: Melosverlag, 1928),

115 tioning it. 327 But naturally, in the New Music the relationships between the elements are gradually dissolved and finally deliberately split. Every one of the elements stands under its own inherent law. 328 Musical elements thus escape the original relations, and so in Mersmann s typology they are attributed the designation absolute. And all this can be expressed as a consequence of the switch from tonality: Tonal music is essentially relative [ ] ; atonal music is essentially absolute. 329 At this point the following critical question must be asked: how can one meaningfully analyse music if the value of a musical work consists of the unique arrangement of various musical qualities into a meaningful whole? Whereas the artistic value resides in the totality of the individual forces, in the case of Gebrauchsmusik, music of a lesser artistic value, very often one parameter is predominant the melody. 330 For example, Mersmann states that a reduced complexity of music corresponds to its lesser artistic ambitions. How else is it possible to find a whole where the individual elements are absolute, i.e. they are freed of mutual relations? That which is not in music cannot be thought up for it. And yet it is appropriate to talk primarily of the elements alone as the foundation of the New Music. 331 So what changes fundamentally in the case of the New Music is the inner correlation of components which forms the musical style, while form is not affected so strongly by the changes in the musical language. In any case, Mersmann did not fail to show that as a reaction to Schoenberg the most striking exponent of the New Music there was a wave of neoclassicism, to some extent a return to the earlier musical styles. Such a development actually corresponded to Mersmann s expectations Mersmann emphasised that in the case of Webern, for example, the absolute nature of the melody went so far that it was no longer possible to escalate it. From the aspect of analysis the fact that the integrity of the musical structure, which could no longer be categorised according to common traits, was broken, was fundamental: The music of the earlier centuries could be understood from the standpoint of empirical typology. Discoveries which were made concerning the works of Haydn, and established typical significances, were also valid for Mozart, Beethoven, or Schubert. [ ] The possibility of typological order in the case of contemporary music is either restricted or en ti rely missing. Facts which are gathered from an analysis of Schoenberg are scarcely applicable to Bartok, Stravinsky, or Hindemith. 332 And this state corresponds primarily to the fact that musical elements acquire an absolute character. For example, the relative 327 Ibid., Ibid., Mersmann, Musik der Gegenwart, Hans Mersmann, Versuch einer musikalischen Wertästhetik, Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 17, No. 1 (1935): Mersmann, Die Tonsprache der neuen Musik, Hans Mersmann, A Method for Analysis of New Music, International Music Educator M, No. 6 (1962):

116 melody of the previous period was replaced by absolute melody, very similarly to how it had worked in older music, where the tonal space performed the function of tonality. 333 One can deduce the coherence of Mersmann s argument about phenomenological analysis and about New Music from Mersmann s own analytical commentaries. At their centre there is always the analysis of individual elements from the aspect of their force course. The analyses in Angewandte Ästhetik (employing examples from folk music, which Mersmann knew thanks to the focus of his dissertation, and otherwise recruiting mainly from the classical and romantic period) and analysis of Haydn s Sonata in Eb Major (Hob. XVI: 49), presented in an earlier study introducing musical phenomenology (1923), are particularly instructive. The strong focus on thematic material, its force characteristics, and the further course arising from it in its force profile are evident from the analyses. 334 Although Mersmann mentions the start of the gradual dissolution of the relations between the elements as far back as Beethoven and primarily amongst the Romantics, he asserts that there was a clear turning point in musical resources in the works of Richard Strauss, Gustav Mahler, and Max Reger. The melodic lines of their compositions lack a pregnancy of contour; he observes how swinging their curves are, how weak the binding, continuously rising forces are in them. 335 These composers still worked with arched melodic lines, but in them it was evident that: Melody displays a strong force; it flows without weight, without antagonism and without constructive binds. 336 The further development of this type of melody expressing the untamed Dionysian force 337 culminated in the work of Schoenberg and was taken to its very limit by Webern, in whose works we cannot hear a blooming of the melodic line. Absolute melody and the way it influenced the logic of the musical process are also reflected in the area of harmony. Wide intervals in particular must now be understood otherwise, because tonal thought linked them with the functions of harmonies. Mersmann characterised developments in the field of harmony as primarily having two tendencies. One was the increasing value of the purely sound aspect of harmonies (on which impressionism was based in an exemplary manner) and the other was the horizontalisation of harmony escalation of the horizontal. 338 So even when chords follow one another in the musical flow, their force potential focuses on melody the chord links with the following one via the individual tones and not as an 333 Mersmann, Die Tonsprache der neuen Musik, Mersmann developed the notion of a theme and a complex of its relations (Substanzgemeinschaft) which determine the evolution of form. Among later analysts who were equally seeking for thematic cohesion and development in music, we can remind us of Rudolf Réti with his well-known The Thematic Process in Music (1951). Cf. Felix Wö rner, Thematicism : Geschichte eines analytischen Konzepts in der nordamerikanischen Musiktheorie, Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fü r Musiktheorie 6, No. 1 (2009): 77 89, here Mersmann, Musik der Gegenwart, Ibid., Mersmann, Angewandte Musikästhetik, Mersmann, Musik der Gegenwart,

117 integral unit. And Mersmann associated the increasing role of timbre, which now must be included amongst the primary elements, with the increasing decline of working out thematic material. 339 Form-building elements are also in decline in rhythm, which Mersmann also refers to as absolute, which primarily means not bound by metric structure. The most important sources for learning about Mersmann s analytical approach applied to the New Music are his analysis of Artur Schnabel s Sonata for Solo Violin written in and also the analytical notes accompanying his explanation in studies about New Music in general; the characteristics in Die Tonsprache der Neuen Musik are of particular value. Primarily on the basis of the analysis of Schnabel s Sonata, it can be seen that the interest of Mersmann s deductions lies more than anything else in the analyses of the tectonic course of the shorter sections (in particular themes) rather than in the demonstration of the force process at the level of form. But of course this may be associated with the general characteristic of the New Music, which does not use the traditionally established methods of thematic work and construction of form based on them. For example, the expression of the difference between the theme of the first and fifth movements of Schnabel s sonata, based on the quality of intervals and the direction of melody, seems convincing. It also goes along with higher susceptibility of the melodic element to the analysis of force dynamics. Moreover, music departing from the thematic basis truly appears to abandon its reliable resource of form-building impulses too, which is not actually the case with Schnabel. Despite this, here Mersmann formulates ana lytical observations on the basis of his energeticist phenomenological concept, presented as a system three years later, and may specify the formal arrangement of the individual move ments of the sonata but not on the basis of the relationship between the individual parts of the development of the thematic material, but by observing the developmental rhythm of the whole movement. 341 In his treatment of the cyclic form in Schnabel s Sonata Mersmann identified a pattern reminiscent of the bridge form the association of the first and fifth movements (applying the form principle of Entwicklung) and the second and fourth movements (Ablaufsform). At the same time he also designated the theme of the first movement as open expressing the further development and of the fifth movement (with the same form type) as closed. So the tectonics of the last movement do not follow the initial quality of the themes from the aspect of force determination. In the analysis Mersmann also asserted a range of elements by which he later characterised New Music (rhythm, dissolution of all tectonic forces 342 ). Analysis should have not stopped with describing individual aspects, it should exceed it toward understanding a form and style. Whereas melody or harmony is to be grasped quite easily in New Music, the same cannot be said about form, which ceases to be understood in immediate experience and 339 Ibid., Hans Mersmann, Die Sonate für Violine allein von Artur Schnabel, Melos 1, No. 18 (1920): Ibid., Ibid.,

118 must be acquired through synthesis. And next it is important to qualify the traits of the work according to their originality (individual and typical properties), while within the individual qualities it is possible to specify those, which are typical for contemporary music. The notion of developmental value ( Entwicklungswert ) then contributes to assess this holistic view of tectonics. 343 The fact itself that Mersmann didn t gave many analyses of contemporary compositions speaks for the conclusion that Mersmann considered analysis of elements the more reliable phase of music analysis of New Music and at the same time he concentrated on the analysis of style features. Hans Mersmann wrote about the music of various musical periods, and in connection with this and his great knowledge of music theory he developed a concept of musical structure expressed through analytical as well as synthetic terms for the designation of its individual aspects. The unifying concept of this view is force, which exists in every structural aspect of its scope of expression. In the case of tonal music based on functions which attract (or repel) the individual tones, Mersmann s (and Kurth s before him) force concept is presented quite naturally. But in contrast to this, in the case of New Music, for which the abandoning of tonality is characteristic, there arise doubts as to the analytical use of Mersmann s applied aesthetics, evident mainly in grasping larger wholes. It is also necessary to emphasise that although analytical approaches focusing on atonal music appeared later, none of them gained such renown to apply as a generally functional and sufficient analytical method. From this aspect Mersmann s analysis is seen as being by no means an outdated and merely historically significant method. Indeed, it may apply as an alternative to the pitch class set analysis, in contrast to which it remains close to direct musical experience. But of course Mersmann himself later called the method into question on the basis of the only slightly differentiated glossary for forms of atonal music. It is difficult to point out the individual qualities of a musical work using the term absolute melody (harmony, rhythm). Hopes would evidently be high were it possible in the context of the individual musical elements (and their absolute nature) to outline the force properties of certain types of processes. This possibility is yet to be evaluated. Hans Mersmann and the Analysis of the New Music Abstract The article deals with the concept of New Music, which in the 1920s involved considerations concerning the fundamentally different character of 20 th century music. It focuses on the definition of New Music from its influential proponent, Hans Mersmann, and primarily looks at the relationship of the concept of New Music to Mersmann s phenomenology 343 Hans Mersmann, Die Untersuchung neuerer musikalischer Kunstwerke, Melos 1, No. 14 (1920): , here

119 based on the notion of musical forces. Whereas with his phenomenologically-based aesthetics Mersmann pursued a practically verifi able application aesthetics applied to concrete musical works his definition of musical analysis and theory of musical structure cast doubt on the possibility of analytical exploitation of this applied aesthetics with regard to the music of the 20 th century. This uncertainty is confronted with Mersmann s analytical comments on 20 th century music. Hans Mersmann a analýza Nové hudby Abstrakt Příspěvek se zabývá konceptem Nové hudby, který ve dvacátých letech dvacátého století zaštiťoval úvahy o zásadně odlišném charakteru hudby 20. století. Soustřeďuje se na definici Nové hudby u jejího výrazného proponenta, Hanse Mersmanna, přičemž sleduje především vazbu konceptu Nové hudby na Mersmannovu fenomenologii, založenou na systému hudebních sil. Zatímco Mersmann sledoval svou fenomenologicky založenou estetikou prakticky ověřitelné uplatnění estetiku aplikovanou na konkrétní hudební díla, jeho definice hudební analýzy i teorie hudební struktury zpochybňují možnost hudebně analytického využití této aplikované estetiky na hudbu 20. století. Tato pochybnost je konfrontována s Mersmannovými analýzami hudby 20. století. Keywords Music analysis; force; Hans Mersmann; musical form; New Music; phenomenology of music. Klíčová slova Hudební analýza; síla; Hans Mersmann; hudební forma; Nová hudba; hudební fenomenologie. 119

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121 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 Varhanní tvorba Josefa Förstera mladšího a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera v kontextu přeměny zvukového ideálu varhan v Čechách v druhé polovině 19. století 344 Václav Metoděj Uhlíř 1 Úvod V historii české hudby představuje varhanní tvorba konce 18. století až poloviny 20. století méně reflektovanou žánrovou oblast. Tato skutečnost má své příčiny. Pomineme-li linii varhanních skladatelů, reprezentovaných především aktivními interprety či pedagogy, jakými byli např. Skuherský, Klička, Tregler a zejména Wiedermann (který jediný dokázal dosáhnout výrazných uměleckých úspěchů a vytvořit varhanní dílo trvalé hodnoty), ne představují varhanní skladby předních českých skladatelů dané doby kvantitativně, ale nezřídka i kvalitativně ani náznakově pandán k tvorbě autorů v zahraničí (Liszta, Regera a celé generace francouzských skladatelů v čele s Franckem, Widorem, Viernem a řadou dalších). Uvedená skutečnost vyplývá z několika faktorů. Zásadní roli sehrálo především silné ceciliánské hnutí, které koncertní varhanní tvorbě nebylo příliš nakloněno. Dále šlo o potřebu českých autorů reagovat na jiné žánrové oblasti, jež byly klíčové pro konstituování moderní české národní hudby; v neposlední řadě také o jejich potřebu udržet krok s evropským děním v bouřlivě se rozvíjející hudbě 20. století. Tyto tendence potvrzuje i varhanní tvorba Josefa Förstera ml. a Josefa Bohuslava Foer stera. Díla zmíněných skladatelů na poli varhanní hudby jsou významným dokladem o vlivu cecilianismu v českých zemích. U Josefa Förstera ml. je umocněný skutečností, že právě on prosadil a navrhnul stavbu prvních varhan koncipovaných dle zásad cecilianismu v českých zemích (v pražském chrámu sv. Vojtěcha). Josef Bohuslav Foerster reprezentoval spíše konzervativnější kompoziční proud a reagoval na nové kompoziční směry po měrně zdrženlivě, avšak snad právě proto mu byly ceciliánské myšlenky blízké a s nimi 344 Zpracování studie bylo umožněno díky účelové podpoře na specifický vysokoškolský výzkum udělené roku 2015 Univerzitě Palackého v Olomouci Ministerstvem školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy ČR. 121

122 i specifické pojetí žánru varhanní hudby. Je proto otázkou hlubší analytické reflexe, jak se tyto vlivy promítly do jejich skladeb pro varhany ve smyslu stylovém i kvalitativním. Naznačená okrajovost varhanního díla u skladatelů jako Smetana, Dvořák, Foerster, Novák, Martinů i Leoš Janáček (snad s výjimkou Varhanního sóla z Glagolské mše), však naznamená, že by tato oblast představovala bezvýznamný předmět pro muzikologickou reflexi. V mnoha ohledech je tomu přesně naopak. Analýza varhanní tvorby Josefa Förstera ml. a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera doposud v české hudební vědě chybí. Je proto žádoucí na jejím detailním rozboru zodpovědět otázky míry vlivu cecilianismu, stylových specifik, postavení žánru v kontextu ostatní tvorby obou skladatelů, stejně jako začlenit zkoumané varhanní dílo do vývojové linie české varhanní tvorby. Jelikož je však kompoziční charakter odkazu Josefa Förstera ml. a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera v řadě aspektů odlišný, je zapotřebí ke každému z nich přistoupit zcela jinak. 2 Rod Försterů Prvním autorem rodu Försterů, jehož skladby se dochovaly, je otec Josefa Förstera mladšího Josef Förster starší 345 ( ), který pocházel ze staré kantorské rodiny. V této tradici pokračoval v Osenicích u Jičína jako kantor a varhaník. Nejvýznamnější jsou jeho mše, zejména zádušní (např. Česká mše za zemřelé). Ze záznamů v Osenicích je patrné, že zde prováděl i náročná díla Mozartova a Beethovenova. Žádná dochovaná varhanní literatura tohoto autora však dosud není známa. 2.1 Josef Förster mladší Josef Förster mladší ( ), syn Josefa Förstera st., byl původně připravován na pře vzetí rodové tradice a poslán na vzorovou školu do Prahy. Jeho navazující studium na Pražské varhanické škole, kde absolvoval roku 1852 jako nejlepší v ročníku, ho však dovedlo na varhanické místo do Vyššího Brodu a později na místo pedagoga varhanické školy v Praze. V Praze také zastával varhanické místo v několika kostelích. Například u sv. Mikuláše, u sv. Vojtěcha, nebo v kostele Nejsvětější Trojice. Roku 1887 se stal ředitelem kůru katedrály sv. Víta na Pražském hradě. Později se jeho pedagogická činnost rozrostla na výuku sborového zpěvu a hlavně hudební teorie. V této oblasti se nesmazatelně zapsal učebnicí Nauka o harmonii (1887, Praha), kterou ovlivnil následující generaci českých hudebníků Někdy uváděný také jako Foerster. S touto podobou příjmení se můžeme setkat i u některých vydání skladeb Josefa Förstera mladšího. 346 Bohumír Štědroň, Josef Förster, in Československý hudební slovník osob a institucí, eds. Gracian Černušák, Bohumír Štědroň a Zdenko Nováček (Praha: SHV, 1963),

123 Zásadní období přeměny jeho hudebních preferencí a příklonu k cecilianismu, resp. cyrilismu proběhlo během jeho působení u sv. Vojtěcha ve funkci regenschoriho. Zde pozvedl místní kůr (kde byl tehdy varhaníkem Antonín Dvořák) pěstováním velkých figurálních mší za účasti sólistů Prozatímního divadla. Záhy se však přiklonil k ceciliánskému reformnímu hnutí, které studoval mj. pobytem v Kolíně nad Rýnem, kde se seznamoval s díly starých mistrů. 347 Toto jeho zaměření se během několika let začalo projevovat napříč jeho tvorbou. V jeho kompozicích, ovlivněných reformou, můžeme vysledovat dvě období. Zatímco zpočátku se pevně přidržoval vzorů reformní hudby, později se jeho projev uvolnil a Förster začal používat i novější postupy Josef Förster ml. iniciátor změn Josef Förster ml. byl hlavním iniciátorem přeměny dispoziční a v důsledku i technické podoby varhan u nás. V polovině 19. století v českém varhanářství ještě doznívala pozdně barokní zvuková estetika, která jen velmi pomalu reagovala na aktuální hudební trendy. Zřejmě jako první se začaly od barokní tradice na začátku 19. století odklánět rozsahy manuálových a pedálových klaviatur. Zatímco první chromatizace spodních oktáv, rozšíření manuálových rozsahů zprvu po f 3 a pedálu většinou do c 1 se začaly objevovat již počátkem 19. století (i přesto lze ještě kolem roku 1870 vystopovat stavby varhan v ryze barokním duchu) 348, zvuková proměna proběhla až mnohem později během 70. a 80. let 19. století, a to zejména díky propagaci cyrilismu Josefem Försterem ml. a dalšími. Estetický ideál varhan se definitivně proměnil z tzv. Werkprincipu na nástroj sloužící v první řadě k doprovodu, schopný velmi jemných barevných odstínění v základní osmistopé (u větších nástrojů i čtyřstopé) poloze. Zvukovou podobu varhan výrazně ovlivnila i proměna technického řešení. Přechod z kancel tónových na kancely rejstříkové si vyžádal zvýšení tlaku vzduchu, což mělo na výslednou zvukovou podobu varhan velký vliv. Byla výrazně posílena základní osmistopá poloha na úkor alikvotních smíšených hlasů, které, pokud se v jednotlivých strojích vyskytovaly, tak pouze jednotlivě. Oblíbenými se staly smykavé rejstříky a rejstříky výchvěvné. Technická proměna varhan se týkala také spojování jednotlivých strojů, které se oproti předchozí praxi znatelně rozšířilo. Kompenzován tím byl ústup z již zmíněného Werkprincipu. Oblíbené byly kolektivy, tedy pevně dané kombinace rejstříků, často označované dynamickými znaménky (p, mf, f, ff ). Těch ve svých skladbách (dokonce již v rukopisech) používal i Josef Förster ml. Jak si jejich konkrétní podobu představoval, můžeme vidět u jím navržených nástrojů, nejlépe u sv. Vojtěcha v Praze. 347 Anna Beránková, Pražští cyrilisté a jejich vztah k řezenskému cecilianismu. Komentovaná edice korespondence pražských cyrilistů F. X. Wittovi (diplomová práce, Praha: FF UK, 2010). 348 Například nástroj Augustina Španěla mladšího ( ) v Širokém Dole z roku 1869 měl ještě 45 tónů v manuálu (C-c 3 s krátkou oktávou) a 12 v pedálu (C-a s krátkou oktávou). Dispozice byla také ryze barokní. Viz Václav Uhlíř, Varhanářský rod Španělů (bakalářská práce, Olomouc: FF UPOL, 2013). 123

124 Vliv cecilianismu na radikální změnu podoby varhan v Čechách však jistě není jediným. Schopnost postupného crescenda a volby jemných barevných detailů v rámci registrace skladeb 19. století je jistě i dílem vlivu slohového, tedy romantismu. Kompozice pro varhany se tímto přiblížili těm orchestrálním. Více se tomuto tématu věnoval Dr. Petr Lyko v publikaci Die Orgel, a bylo by redundantní zde toto téma nadále rozvíjet. 349 Mezi nejznámější dispozice navrhované Försterem je dispozice v kostele sv. Vojtěcha na Novém městě v Praze, tedy v kostele, kde Förster působil. Varhany postavené v duchu reformy postavila roku 1877 továrna G. F. Steinmeyera z Oettingenu v Bavorsku (opus 163): I. manuál (C f3, 54) II. man (C f3, 54) Pedál (C d1, 27) Bourdon 16' Principal houslový 8' Subbass 16' Principal 8' Flétna jemná 8' Violonbass 16' Tibia 8' Salicional 8' Octavbas 8' Kryt 8' Aeolina 8' Violoncello 8' Viola di Gamba 8' Fugara 4' Octava 4' Fagott Clarinette 8' Flétna smuteční 2' Octava 2' Mixtura František Ekert v Posvátných místech Prahy napsal: Hudební kruchta dostala roku 1877 nové umělecké varhany soustavy kuželových závorů, jež zhotovila firma Steinmeyerova v bavorských Etinkách. Stroj ten, posud v Praze svého druhu jediný, má 19 znějících hlasů, 2 kópuly [rozumějme spojky] a 4 kolektivy, stál přes zlatých a vzbuzuje obdiv všech znalců. 351 Mezi méně známé záznamy o Foersterově organologické činnosti patří následující zápis z Čáslavské farní kroniky ze dne : Konstrukce a dispozice, jakož i neúplné spodní oktávy obou manuálů a pedálu a jich ambi tus jsou patrným důkazem, že pochází tento stroj z časů dávno minulých a tvrdím, že varhany tyto více než 160 roků staré jsou. Po prohlédnutí měchů (tři klínové měchy) a píšťal (21 rejstříků), nabyl jsem toho přesvědčení, že materiál kovový i dřevěný úplně opotřebován a zubem času úplně rozhlodán jest. Z řečeného vysvítá, že o opravě jakéhokoliv rozměru neb o jakémsi přestavení neb doplnění tohoto stroje nemůže býti řeči, a že nezbývá nic jiného, než aby pořízen byl stroj nový, a činím návrh, aby nový stroj objednán byl u některé firmy zahraniční, poněvádž domácí varhanické práce za oněmi v cizozemsku valně pokulhávají. Mezi firmy solidní i umělecké řadím především u nás již osvědčenou 349 Petr Lyko, Die Orgel im Gebiet von Jeseník, Olomouc, Prostějov, Přerov und Šumperk in den Jahren (Olomouc: VUP, 2011). 350 Tomíček, Varhany a jejich osudy (Praha: PM vydavatelství, 2010), Tomíček, Varhany a jejich osudy,

125 továrnu G. F. Steinmeyer, o jejíž přesné práci, ušlechtilé a charakteristické intonaci rejstříků a o výtečnosti kuželové soustavy na několika místech přesvědčiti se možno. Rakouské varhanické firmy navrhuji závod varhanický Riegra a bratří v Jägerndorfu a neb firmu Julius Augusta v Pětikostelích v Uhrách. Navrhuji tyto firmy, stojím na stanovisku objektivním, na stanovisku pokroku a umění, které neznajíc monopolu, jest majetkem všech národností a konfesí. Proslulá továrna na hudební nástroje v Hradci Králové má světové jméno, varhanáře Červeného však u nás s bolestí postrádáme. 352 Pokračování tohoto zápisu pak nejen že dává závěrečné usnesení, které nevyplnilo Försterovo přání, ale hlavně ukazuje jeho návrh dispozice: Na základě tohoto dobrozdání usnešeno, na dodání nových varhan do zdejšího děkanského kostela konkurz v novinách uveřejniti, následkem téhož přihlásili se: G. F. Steinmeyer, Karel Eisenhut, Karel Schiffner, Emanuel Petr. Dne 18. května 1883 byl městskou radou a děkanem učiněn návrh obecnímu zastupitelstvu, aby stavba nových varhan svěřena byla české firmě Emanuel Petr z Prahy na základě dobrozdání profesora a vládního znalce v oboru hudby J. Foerstera ze dne 10. března 1883, z kterého zřejmo, že Emanuel Petr osvojil si v Čechách největší pokrok a zručnost v soustavě moderních varhan jehlicových, totiž soustavu jehlicovou. Výhody této soustavy jsou i snadné, ano hravé registrování, přesné a okamžité ozývání se i nejjemnějších rejstříků, jakož i možnost zařízení kolektivních tahů. 353 Návrh dispozice: I. manuál (C f3, 54) II. man (C f3, 54) Pedál (C d1, 27) Bourdon 16' Principal housl. 8' Principalbas 16' Principal 8' Krytá 8' Subbas 16' Fleta 8' Salicional 8' Violin 16' Tibia 8' Dolce 8' Quintbas 10 2/3' Gamba 8' Aeolina 8' Octavbas 8' Kamzičí roh 8' Fugara 4' Bourdunbas 8' Octava 4' Flétna 4' Cello 8' Gambeta 4' Flageolet 2' Basflétna 4' Flétna 4' Octava 2' Mixtura 4 Lze si povšimnout dispoziční podobnosti s nástrojem u sv. Vojtěcha v Praze, který byl českým varhanářům evidentním vzorem. Jak velký podíl na tvorbě dispozice u konkrétních nástrojů měl Förster (jako později například Wiedermann), není prokazatelné. 352 Farní kronika je dodnes uložená na faře v Čáslavi. 353 Farní kronika dodnes uložena na faře v Čáslavi. 125

126 Příklad 1: Předehra a dohra k písni V posvátné úctě klekáme V dnešním Kancionálu českých a moravských diecézí (Praha 1988) pod číslem

127 Podobnou organologickou činnost lze u Josefa Förstera ml. zaznamenat například v Lou nech (kostel sv. Mikuláše, fi rma Em. Š. Petr, op. 25), Havlíčkově Brodě (kostel Nanebevzetí Panny Marie firma Steinmayer, op. 156) a u mnohých dalších Josef Förster ml. skladby pro varhany K nejčastěji hraným skladbám Josefa Förstera ml. patří paradoxně ty, které mají nejmenší uměleckou hodnotu. Jsou to hlavně jeho úpravy písní v Katolickém varhaníku (1860, op. 13) a za často používaný lze také označit Praktický úvod ku hře na varhany (1862, op. 15), který obsahoval kromě komentovaného úvodu a jednotlivých instruktivních cvičení i malé chorály a jiné drobné skladby, často tematicky spojené s písněmi z Katolického varhaníka. 355 Tyto drobné skladby lze zařadit do období Försterova vyhraněného cecilianismu, tedy neobsahují žádné harmonicky příliš evoluční postupy a jsou i vzhledem k jejich pozdějšímu využití konzervativní a prosté. 356 Z ukázky je zřejmé polyfonní vedení hlasů v rámci poměrně jednoduché harmonické sazby. Autor se drží tématu písně jen v jejím začátku, velmi často jej nechává zaznít imitačně. V průběhu skladby lze sledovat i začínající sklon k chromatickým postupům. Tato i podobné dochované varhanní kompozice však mají být dostupné i amatérským varhaníkům, a tak je třeba je v dnešním kontextu chápat. Ceciliánské vyhýbání se koncertnímu stylu je zde příkladné. Mezi jediné kriticky vydané skladby Josefa Förstera ml. patří Fuga f moll, Fugato E dur a Fuga Es dur. Vydal je Český rozhlas v rámci své ediční řady České varhanní skladby ve druhém díle. 357 Datace těchto skladeb je mezi lety a prvního vydání se do stalo těmto skladbám pod názvem Compositions-Versuche von Jos. Förster. 358 Nejrozsáhlejší a nejpropracovanější je Fuga f moll. Ta se někdy také uvádí jako Introdukce a fuga f moll. 359 Avšak introdukce tvoří jen zanedbatelný zlomek celé skladby a jistě by při svém rozsahu cca 10 taktů nemohla být samostatně uváděna. Považujme tedy tento název za méně vhodný. Celá skladba má klasickou stavbu fugy s rytmicky stálou protivětou. V provedení jsou zpracovávány jednotlivé motivy tématu velmi nápaditým způsobem. V průběhu fugy je až bachovsky dodržován komplementární rytmus, závěrečná těsna je pak opět vzorně vypracovaná po vzoru bachovské fugy. Harmonická stránka je jedinou, která jasně řadí dílo do druhé poloviny 19. století. I přes evidentní vzor ve staré formě se nevyhýbá chromatickým postupům zejména v melodických tónech. Přechod mezi provedením a závěrem pomocí generální pauzy spíše odkazuje na staré české fugy. 355 Veronika Velenová, České varhanní školy a možnost jejich praktického využití (diplomová práce, Brno: HF JAMU, 2014). 356 Anna Beránková, Pražští cyrilisté a jejich vztah k řezenskému cecilianismu. Komentovaná edice korespondence pražských cyrilistů F. X. Wittovi (diplomová práce, Praha: FF UK, 2010). 357 Josef Popelka, České varhanní skladby II. (Praha: Český rozhlas, 2012), Uloženo v knihovně Pražské konzervatoře pod signaturou 1 C Autorem tohoto názvu je zřejmě prof. Jan Hora, který ji takto na svých koncertech uváděl. 127

128 Příklad 2: Fuga f moll příklad Försterovy typické krátké introdukce a uvedení tématu Fugato E dur a Fuga Es dur jsou menšího rozsahu a svou formou a způsobem zpracování odpovídají zcela Fuze f moll. Svou propracovaností a náročností na interpreta jsou však na nižší úrovni. Sloužili tedy zřejmě jako kompoziční cvičení, nebo později jako didaktický materiál. Slavnostní předehra D dur (op. 4) odpovídá kompozičně introdukci a fuze, tedy formě, kterou Förster použil například u Fugy f moll. Závažnost této skladby odpovídá spíše školní práci, proto lze i přes absenci přesné datace tuto skladbu zařadit zhruba před rok I přes harmonickou prostotu je však fuga na poměrně vysoké úrovni. Nemá příliš závažné, ani rozsáhlé téma, ale je řemeslně zpracována velmi dobře. Registrace Försterových skladeb se řídí jeho pokyny naznačenými dynamickými znaménky. Je pravděpodobné, že Förster sám hojně používal pevné kombinace stejných 128

129 názvů, které se objevují na všech jeho navrhovaných varhanách. Ve Slavnostní předehře D dur se navíc udává pokyn Plným strojem, což odpovídalo tutti celého nástroje. 2.2 Josef Bohuslav Foerster Josef Bohuslav Foerster ( ) neměl být dle přání jeho otce Josefa Förstera ml. hudebníkem z povolání, avšak již po roce studia chemie na německé technické škole nastupuje na podzim roku 1879 na pražskou varhanickou školu. Od roku 1882 působil jako varhaník nejprve v kostele sv. Vojtěcha, později v chrámu Panny Marie Sněžné. Zároveň referoval v Národních listech a čile komponoval. Z tohoto období stojí za zmínku hlavně opera Debora (1891), Stabat Mater (1892), písňové cykly a církevní kompozice. Roku 1893 se spolu se svou ženou stěhuje do Hamburku, kde se věnuje nadále žurnalistické, pedagogic ké i kompoziční činnosti. Stejně jako v případě jeho prvního stěhování, podruhé je jeho příčinou angagement jeho ženy. Foerster se tedy nevrací do Čech, ale následuje svou ženu roku 1903 do Vídně. Působí zde jako profesor na Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst, jako referent listu Die Zeit a stále komponuje. Mezi skladby tohoto Foersterova vrcholného tvůrčího období patří například IV. symfonie Veliká noc (1905), symfonické básně Legenda o štěstí (1909) a Jaro a touha (1912), III. smyčcový kvartet (1907), I. houslový koncert (1911) nebo klavírní cyklus Erotovy masky (1912). Jeho návrat do Čech byl spojen s funkcí profesora na Pražské konzervatoři, kde vedl svou mistrovskou třídu a dalšími významnými funkcemi (rektor Pražské konzervatoře, prezident České akademie věd a umění atd.). Od roku 1939 se Foerster stáhl z veřejného života a věnoval se pouze kompozici J. B. Foerster skladby pro varhany Josef Bohuslav Foerster se na rozdíl od svého otce nijak zvlášť neangažoval v oblasti organologické. Jeho životní směřování bylo více kompoziční, a tak je rozbor jeho skladeb sice bez organologického kontextu, o to zajímavější je z kompozičního hlediska. V prvé řadě je nutno podotknout, že Foerster byl i dlouho ve dvacátém století kompozičně velmi tradiční, až konzervativní. Tedy v přímém rozporu s Janáčkem, Martinů a ostatními skladateli, kteří pro varhany velmi zřídka, ale přece psali. Platí tedy i zde zažité výroky o tom, že až smrtí tohoto autora v roce 1951 končí český romantismus. Rukopisy i skici varhanních skladeb J. B. Foerstera jsou dnes uloženy v Českém muzeu hudby v Praze. První Foersterova dochovaná varhanní skladba Fantazie C dur (1896, op. 14) spadá do hamburského období. Svým způsobem se zaměření jeho komponování v Hamburku vymyká, neboť se zde Foerster věnoval hlavně písním, sborům a kompozicím profánním. Důvod jejího vzniku není zcela jasný. Avšak ve vydání vydavatelství Hermann Beyer 360 Bohumír Štědroň, Josef Bohuslav Foerster, in Československý hudební slovník osob a institucí, eds. Gracian Černušák, Bohumír Štědroň a Zdenko Nováček (Praha: SHV, 1963),

130 a Söhne je na úvodní stránce uvedeno Herrn Professor Ernst Rabich gewidmet. Skladba tedy byla věnována kantorovi a tehdejšímu hudebnímu řediteli kůru města Gotha, který jako osobnost mohl být i impulsem k této kompozici. 361 Rozsáhlá skladba pracuje s dvěma hlavními (a, b) a jedním vedlejším tématem (c). Hlavní témata se prolínají celou skladbou a vzájemně se doplňují a kombinují. Vedlejší téma tvoří základ náznaku fugy ve střední části, jinak se ve skladbě téměř nevyskytuje. Práce s těmito tématy je řemeslně příkladná a potvrzuje Foersterovo tradiční chápání hudby. Avšak na rozdíl od svého otce skladbu graduje evolučním zpracováním. Během skladby se často mění tempo, témata jsou diminuovaná, objevují se i jako protivěty a dynamika celé skladby je velmi rozmanitá. V tom je asi největší rozdíl proti tvorbě Josefa Förstera ml., který dynamiku komponoval blokově. J. B. Foerster zachází s varhanami jako s orchestrem. K registraci používá dynamických znamének jako jeho otec, ovšem s širší paletou nabízených dynamik. Harmonicky se autor nevyhýbá prudkým modulacím a zlomům, které však používá poměrně střídmě pouze jako obohacující prvek jinak velmi melodické skladby. Druhou známou varhanní skladbou je Impromptu (1925, op. 135). 362 Zajímavá je původní tužkou psaná skica této skladby, která má titul Fantazie pro varhany. V čistopisu je název přelepený nadpisem Impromptu. Kdy ke změně názvu došlo, nevíme, ale zřejmě před jejím prvním vydáním, protože se jinde název Fantazie pro varhany nevyskytuje. V Čechách vyšla skladba v roce 1951 ve vydavatelství Orbis Praha 363 a také v rámci edice Česká varhanní tvorba Jiřího Reinbergera a Čeňka Gardavského, která vyšla ve Státním nakladatelství krásné literatury, hudby a umění v letech Paradoxně je Impromptu ve svém průběhu daleko evolučnější než Fantazie C dur. Má dvě hlavní témata, kterých se ovšem autor nedrží tak striktně jako ve zmíněné Fantazii. Hned po svém uvedení jsou evolučně rozvíjena a harmonický děj je o něco překvapivější a prudší. Obě skladby jsou primárně homofonní, bohatým dynamickým dějem napodobující skladby pro orchestr. Hlavní složkou a pojícím prvkem je melodie, ať již v sopránu nebo některém jiném hlase. Impromptu je bohatší v modulačním plánu a jeho témata mají výraznější hlavu. Obě skladby však čerpají z možností takové podoby varhan, jak je u nás propagoval Josef Förster ml., tedy s širokou paletou osmistopých rejstříků a postupného crescenda, tak jak je to možné u orchestru, a také s využitím kolektivů. Dynamika je tedy nastíněna stejně jako u J. Föerstera ml. dynamickými znaménky. Celkově je tvorba J. B. Foerstera pro varhany velmi tradiční, až zpátečnická, což odpovídá jeho celkovému zařazení jako skladatele. Neobsahuje žádné inovativní postupy, známé u jeho vrstevníků Janáčka, Martinů nebo Wiedermanna. 361 Uvedené vydání bohužel nemá dataci, je uloženo v Českém muzeu hudby a stálo 1,20 marek. 362 V předmluvě ke Čtyřem skladbám pro harmonium je uveden rok vzniku této skladby 1927 bez bližšího odůvodnění. Ostatní prameny (Fojtíková a další) shodně uvádějí rok Označení této skladby vydavatelstvím Orbis Praha: EO

131 Příklad 3: Fantazie C dur (op. 14) uvedení a prolínání témat ihned v úvodu skladby Z významných nahrávek varhanních skladeb J. B. Foerstera lze jmenovat CD Jana Hory Complete Organ Works nakladatelství Vixen z roku Na tomto kompaktním disku je Fantazie C dur i Impromptu J. B. Foerstera. 3 Shrnutí Varhanní hudba Josefa Förstera ml. a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera je zajímavá ze dvou hledisek. U Josefa Förstera mladšího je to hlavně v kontextu s celkovou proměnou estetického ideálu varhan v Čechách, kterou z velké části sám inicioval. Z kompozičního hlediska jsou jeho skladby z formálního hlediska precizně zpracované, svou invencí však výrazně nepřesahují dobový skladatelský průměr. Skladby J. B. Foerstera nejsou svým organologickým kontextem tak důležité, neboť staví na podobě varhan, jak je propagoval Josef Förster ml. Jsou však daleko zajímavější svou skladebnou stránkou. Varhany J. B. Foerster používá jako orchestr, s jemným odstíněním pestré dynamiky, výraznými harmonickými i dynamickými zvraty, a také primární avšak proměnlivou melodikou. Tím vzniká dílo, které je oproti Josefu Försterovi ml. více evoluční, avšak i přes svou dataci (1896, 1925) 131

132 stále poplatné ryze romantickému cítění. Jen malému zlomku těchto skladeb se dostalo kritického vydání. Některé z nich by si to však v budoucnu jistě zasloužily. Works for Organ by Josef Förster Jr. and Josef Bohuslav Foerster in the Context of the Transformation of the Organ Sound Ideal in Bohemia in the Second Half of the 19 th Century Abstract Organ compositions by Josef Förster Jr. and Josef Bohuslav Foerster are interesting from two points of view. In connection with Josef Förster Jr., this can primarily be seen within the context of the overall change of in the aesthetic organ ideal in Bohemia, which was mostly started by Förster himself. His compositions are professionally composed, but their invention does not exceed the average of contemporary compositions. The compositions of J. B. Foerster are not particularly interesting in terms of their organ-building context, as J. B. Foerster bases his character of the organ on that promoted by Josef Förster Jr. J. B. Foerster s compositions are more interesting in terms of their compositional aspect. J. B. Foerster makes use of the organ like an orchestra, with a delicious intensification of multicoloured dynamics, with both distinct harmonic and dynamic twists, and also with a primary, but nevertheless changing, melodic. In this way a composition with the following characteristics arises: in comparison with Josef Förster Jr. more evolutionary, regardless of the time of creation (1896, 1925) but always conforming to a purely romantic feeling. Only a few of these compositions have been already critically edited and published. A number of them are definitely deserving of this in the future. Varhanní tvorba Josefa Förstera mladšího a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera v kontextu přeměny zvukového ideálu varhan v Čechách v druhé polovině 19. století Abstrakt Varhanní hudba Josefa Förstera ml. a Josefa Bohuslava Foerstera je zajímavá ze dvou hledisek. U Josefa Förstera mladšího je to hlavně v kontextu s celkovou proměnou estetického ideálu varhan v Čechách, kterou z velké části sám inicioval. Z kompozičního hlediska jsou jeho skladby z formálního hlediska precizně zpracované, svou invencí však výrazně nepřesahují dobový skladatelský průměr. Skladby J. B. Foerstera nejsou svým organologickým kontextem tak důležité, neboť staví na podobě varhan, jak je propagoval Josef Förster ml. Jsou však daleko zajímavější svou skladebnou stránkou. Varhany J. B. Foerster používá jako orchestr, s jemným odstíněním pestré dynamiky, výraznými harmonickými 132

133 i dynamickými zvraty, a také primární avšak proměnlivou melodikou. Tím vzniká dílo, které je oproti Josefu Försterovi ml. více evoluční, avšak i přes svou dataci (1896, 1925) stále poplatné ryze romantickému cítění. Jen malému zlomku těchto skladeb se dostalo kritického vydání. Některé z nich by si to však v budoucnu jistě zasloužily. Keywords Josef Bohuslav Foerster; Josef Förster Jr.; organ compositions; contemporary compositions. Klíčová slova Josef Bohuslav Foerster; Josef Förster ml.; skladby pro varhany; současná kompozice. 133

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135 Musicologica Olomucensia 22 December 2015 A Discourse on Belarusian Music and its Role in the Construction of Identities in Belarus Anastasia Wakengut Introduction: Belarusian Identities Belarus, a post-soviet state in the heart of Eastern Europe, is characterized by the complexity of historical and cultural impacts. Before it became independent in 1991, Belarus belonged to and was culturally influenced by different regions, such as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Empire and, finally, the Soviet Union. 364 The Russification policy of the Russian Empire marginalized the Belarusian language, and the process of marginalization continued in Soviet Belarus. Officially, Belarus has two state languages Belarusian and Russian. However, Russian is widely used, while Belarusian remains marginalized: only a minority of Belarusians speak the language in everyday life. This minority often evokes controversial reactions: it is either politicized and linked with opposition or associated with rural people. 365 Different scholars describe Belarusian national identity as malleable 366 or as less well developed than in neighboring states. 367 It is evident, however, that two different conceptions of national identity exist in Belarus. Nelly Bekus describes these opposing discourses as the official and the alternative Belarusianness. 368 This model suggests that the nation, which is ethnically Belarusian in the vast majority, is split into two different 364 Cf. Thomas M. Bohn, Victor Šadurskij, and Albert Weber, eds., Ein weißer Fleck in Europa: Die Ima gination der Belarus als Kontaktzone zwischen Ost und West (Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, 2011), The latter are also often associated with the so-called Trasyanka, a mixed Belarusian-Russian variety of the language. 366 Cf. Andrew Wilson, Belarus: The Last Dictatorship in Europe (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2011). 367 Cf. David R. Marples, Belarus: A Denationalized Nation (Amsterdam: Harwood Acad. Publ., 1999). 368 Nelly Bekus, Struggle over identity: the official and the alternative Belarusianness (Budapest: CEU Press, 2010). 135

136 political nations. Each of them employs its own identity politics, discourses, symbols, and cultural practices to express itself. The alternative Belarusianness involves the engagement in Belarusian pre-soviet history, usage of the Belarusian language, anti-establishment discourses and cultural practices, and post-colonial positioning. On the contrary, the official Belarusianness relates to the idea of national identity as maintained by the official pro-soviet discourse and embraced by a larger, Russian-speaking part of Belarusians. 369 The issue of national identity is inextricably linked with the issue of the Belarusian language, and these issues remain in the foreground at different levels not only at the academic level but also at the social and cultural ones. As a post-soviet state, Belarus continues to preserve the cultural legacy of the Soviet past. At the same time, many young Belarusians strongly identify with Europeans in different ways. Processes of identity construction are extremely multifaceted and can be described as transcultural. 370 Analyzing the eclectic identity projects, and the diverse perceptions of Belarusian culture as articulated through cultural practices such as music, one can develop an understanding of current issues, and specifically the issue of identity, in Belarus. Methodological Framework The article emerged in the framework of a dissertation project, Popular Music and the Construction of Cultural Identities in Post-Soviet Belarus, 371 conducted in the context of the interdisciplinary post-graduate studies programme with the title The Construction 369 However, Belarusian speakers should not automatically be associated with certain political views, as Russian speakers should not necessarily be linked with conformism. 370 Cf. Wolfgang Welsch, Transculturality: the Puzzling Form of Cultures Today, in Spaces of Culture: City, Nation, World, eds. Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash (London: Sage, 1999), According to the theory of transculturality, cultures are not closed, homogeneous, uniform national entities or communities, but represent a plurality of possible identities. The concept implies that transcultural cultures do not just coexist but are interpenetrative and are thus hybrid. 371 The term popular music as a common term in Popular Music Studies is neutral and is used to describe various genres and styles of music. Popular music is commonly understood as music that began to develop with the growth of industrialization in the 19 th century and reached broader audiences by the 1950s, as sheet music was completely replaced by vinyl records. Popular music can be defined as readily comprehensible to a large amount of people with no obligatory knowledge of musical theory and techniques: cf. Stanley Sadie, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 1980), 87. In the present study, popular music is understood as a discursive practice that offers cultural meanings and thus participates directly in the construction of identities: cf. Peter Wicke, Vom Umgang mit Popmusik (Berlin: Cornelsen, 2001). Identity is understood here as a process, which indicates its continuing, flexible, non-stable and changeable character. Identity can be described as a becoming or process, rather than a fixed entity involving the suturing of the discursive outside with the internal processes of subjectivity: cf. Stuart Hall, The Question of Cultural Identity, in Modernity: an Introduction to Modern Societies, ed. Stuart Hall et al. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996),

137 of Identities of Young Adults in a Post-Socialist Society in Transformation: The Case of Belarus. 372 The article is based on research involving participant observation, twenty-one semistructured guided interviews, and two focus groups, all conducted in Minsk, Belarus. Throughout three stays in Minsk in 2013 and 2014 (about ten weeks in total), I did field work that can be described as ethnographic research with a focus on young people and their music preferences. In the study, I approach music as a key to identity [offering] a sense of both self and others, 373 and as a resource in [which] and through which agency and identity are produced. 374 Without giving preference to a specific genre, I place a microsociological focus upon people and their musical practices in the attempt to recognize the ways in which music is used and the important role that it plays in everyday life and in society generally. 375 Statistical data are provided by a survey which was developed by the members of the post-graduate studies programme in cooperation with the Center of Social and Political Investigations (CSPI) of the Belarusian State University, Minsk. The representative, nation-wide survey consists of standardized interviews with 1000 Belarusians, aged 18 to 30 (representing 493 female and 507 male respondents). The CSPI conducted the survey in late Sixteen focus group respondents as well as thirteen interviewees were recruited by the CSPI, whose networks are broad enough to offer a wide range of representatives of Belarusian youth with various possible music preferences. In addition, one interviewee was an acquaintance that I made at a concert. 377 The remaining seven interviewees were recruited through my personal network in Minsk, and were selected based on a strong identification with a particular music style (or styles). The selection method can thus be described as snowball sampling, which enables the researcher to get access to the inner structure of the field and, ideally, to the contrasts in the field, 378 which appeared to be the case in this research. 372 In the studies programme, a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is applied. Description of the project: Simon Frith, Music and Identity, in Questions of Cultural Identity, eds. Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay (London: Sage, 1996), Tia DeNora, Music in Everyday Life (Cambridge: University Press, 2000), Sarah Cohen, Ethnography and Popular Music Studies, Popular Music 12 (1993): The selection method that the CSPI applied was random-route sampling. The language of the survey was Russian as it is the language most-used among Belarusian population. 377 It was a punk rock concert in the Piraty club in Minsk, which made an impression of an underground club that was situated far from the center. The performing bands were Adaptatsiya from Kazakhstan and the famous Belarusian band Neyro Dyubel. 378 Cf. Aglaja Przyborski and Monika Wohlrab-Sahr, Qualitative Sozialforschung, 4th ed. (München: Oldenbourg, 2014). 137

138 Given the project s focus on the construction of cultural identities in a post-soviet society, focus group respondents were selected on the basis of their identification with European or Cosmopolitan culture. 379 In other words, the first focus group was supposed to represent European or Cosmopolitan identifications, while the second one was supposed to lack the pro-western orientations. However, it proved diffi cult to orga nize the focus groups by the principle West versus East because the question of (trans)national identity is highly complex in Belarus (as shown in the following sections). Differently than planned, the first focus group was eventually characterized by primary identifications with European and Cosmopolitan cultures but also with Slavic culture, while in the second group identifications with European culture prevailed. 380 The interviewees were initially selected on the basis of their positioning toward underground culture; therefore, a portion of the respondents were supposed to identify with underground culture and music. The model non-underground versus underground in relation to popular music seemed to reflect the model of the official and the alternative Belarusianness. Although the reality proved to be far more complex than a dichotomy model, it is remarkable that almost all underground and subcultural respondents were found outside of official institutions, while the majority of non-underground respondents were among those recruited by the CSPI. Among other topics, the focus was placed on participants subjective perceptions of the terms underground, subculture, and mainstream, as well as of Belarusian, European, or Russian culture. The focus groups and interviews showed that, on the one hand, these categories are perceived quite ambivalently, but on the other, they can generate a vivid discussion revealing a person s positioning and providing further insight into discourses taking place in society. Overall, the participants of the interviews and focus groups were young adults ranged from 17 to 30 years, living in Minsk. The majority of them were Russian-speaking, while four interviewees were Belarusian speakers. All participants, except for one person, were currently studying or already had higher education. The respondents were people with different musical preferences from punk rock, metal, folk and indie, to reggae, rap, pop or various forms of electronic music. Some of the interviewees expressed belonging to a subculture, such as punk, goth, skinhead, or hip-hop. Half of the interviewees, as well as some of the focus group participants, were professional or amateur musicians, and some respondents had a musical education. The interviews and focus groups were conducted in Russian. 381 All names were changed. 379 The focus groups, each consisting of eight participants, were conducted in cooperation with Agnes Reiter, whose project deals with young Belarusians dress behaviors and their role in identity constructions. 380 Many respondents simultaneously identified with Belarusian culture, which indicates that the perceptions of it are ambiguous and can represent the opposing East-West poles. 381 Because of an insufficient command of Belarusian, I had to ask Belarusian speakers for an interview in Russian. (It should probably be mentioned that I was born and grew up in Kazakhstan, not in Belarus.) 138

139 Popular Music in Belarus The genres of music involved in Belarusian contemporary music-making include rural repertoires, classical music, variety performance or entertainment music (Estrada), staged folklore, bardic performance, and pop and rock music 382 (including electronic music in its diverse forms as well as styles that are only indirectly related to pop and rock, such as reggae and hip-hop). Figures 1 and 2 show general stylistic preferences of young Belarusians: Fig. 1: Distribution of favorite music styles 382 Cf. Maria Paula Survilla, Of Mermaids and Rock Singers: Placing the Self and Constructing the Nation through Belarusan Contemporary Music (New York and London: Routledge, 2002),

140 Fig. 2: Distribution of favorite live music Figure 1 reflects the classical pop-rock division, although one should bear in mind that genres such as pop and rock are broad meta-categories and can be interpreted very differently. The graph showing live music preferences does not reveal such a division because, firstly, the respective question offers more options and, secondly, the meta-category of rock is split into several sub-styles. Russian and Western music is most widespread in Belarus. Music stores in Minsk usually offer Western, Russian and Belarusian music, but the latter often seems underrepresented. Overall, there is a marked lack of a music industry in Belarus. 383 Languages that Belarusian musicians use in songwriting are, in most cases, Russian, Belarusian and English, with Russian being most preferred. It can be stated that Belarusian and especially Belarusian-language music has a marginal status in Belarus, compared to music from Russia and the Western countries. This is evidenced by the following statistics: in answering the question What country s music do you prefer most? 50 percent of the respondents indicated a preference for music from Russia, while a further 34 percent chose music 383 Cf. Maria Paula Survilla, Belarus, in Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, VII, eds. John Shepherd, David Horn, and Dave Laing (New York: Continuum, 2005),

141 from the USA or Great Britain. 384 Music of Belarus was indicated by 5,5 percent (see figure 3). Of these 5,5 percent (or 55 respondents), 30 persons indicated that the texts in music they prefer are in Russian, 9 respondents chose English, and 14 persons indicated Belarusian. This demonstrates the low proportion of Belarusian-language music in Belarusian music, as well as the low popularity of Belarusian-language music among young Belarusians. In the question What further countries music do you prefer? Belarus was chosen by 15 percent, Russia by 22 percent, and USA/Great Britain by 26,5 percent of the respondents. These results indicate that Belarus as the country of music s origin occupies a marginal position in music preferences of young Belarusians, staying far behind Russia and the USA and Great Britain. Fig. 3: Distribution of countries of favorite music s origin The distribution of language preferences in music is similar (see figure 4). Comparing the graphs in figures 4 and 5 reveals a parallel between preferences in music s languages 384 There is a discrepancy here between the survey data and the results of ethnographic research: while pop music and Russia as the country of music s origin prevail in preferences according to the survey data, the interviews and focus groups reveal that most people dissociate themselves from Russian pop music (generally labeled as popsa). 141

142 and languages considered native. Nearly 52 percent of the respondents identified Russian as their native language, and 55 percent pointed to the Russian language in music they prefer. However, this parallel is obvious only in relation to the Russian language, not to Belarusian. While 35 percent of the respondents consider Belarusian their native language, less than two percent said that their favorite music s texts are written in Belarusian. This discrepancy can be explained, firstly, by the fact that considering a language native and actually speaking this language do not necessarily coincide in Belarus. Many Belarusians, who identify Belarusian as their native language, in fact speak Russian in everyday life: of the 35 percent of the respondents who consider Belarusian their native language, only 8,3 percent said that they use it in everyday life. Secondly, the music market is primarily provided with Russian and Western music rather than Belarusian, so it is hardly possible for Belarusian-language music to gain priority. Fig. 4: Distribution of languages in favorite music 142

143 Fig. 5: Distribution of languages considered native The responses to the question In which further languages are your favorite music s texts written? show that Belarusian is indicated by nearly 15 percent, Russian by 28 percent, and English by 41 percent of the respondents. Both the distribution of the countries of preferred music s origin and the distribution of languages in favorite music reveal that Belarusian music (which may be in Russian or English) as well as Belarusian-language music occupies a marginal position in music preferences of young Belarusians. This is also evident in the discourse on Belarusian music, as shown in the following section. The Discourse on Belarusian Music It is possible to emphasize three major aspects in the discourse on Belarusian music: the first aspect is in regard to Belarusian music s existence, which leads to the second aspect of the music s authenticity and, finally, to the third aspect of language. The aspects of the discourse are closely interconnected and flow into one another. Ultimately, they reflect the extremely complex perception of Belarusian culture by young people as well as their self-perception within this culture. 143