Univerzita Karlova v Praze Filozofická fakulta Ústav anglického jazyka a didaktiky. Bakalářská práce. Katarína Tomašovičová

Transkript

1 Univerzita Karlova v Praze Filozofická fakulta Ústav anglického jazyka a didaktiky Bakalářská práce Katarína Tomašovičová Anglické protějšky českých adverbií zřetele a míry English counterparts of Czech adverbs expressing respect and measure Srpen 2013 Vedoucí práce: PhDr. Pavlína Šaldová, Ph.D

2 Poděkování Ráda bych poděkovala vedoucí své bakalářské práce, PhDr. Pavlíně Šaldové, Ph.D., za ochotu a cenné rady.

3 Prohlášení Prohlašuji, že jsem tuto bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně a výhradně s použitím citovaných pramenů, literatury a dalších odborných zdrojů. V Praze, dne 11. srpna 2013

4 Abstract The objective of the present thesis is to analyse divergent translation counterparts of Czech adverbs; i.e. those cases, where Czech adverbs are realised in English by other means than the corresponding word class of adverbs. The thesis focuses on the divergent counterparts of the Czech adverbs expressing respect and measure. The Theoretical part of this study presents an overview of morphology, syntax, and semantics of adverbs in both languages. The analysis of two hundred and eleven examples obtained from the Czech-English parallel corpus Intercorp is carried out in the empirical part. The divergent counterparts of six adverbs of respect and five adverbs of measure will be classified and analysed with regard to their word class, freqency, and semantics. Abstrakt Cílem této práce je analýza divergentních protějšků českých adverbií, tj. případů, kdy jsou česká příslovce v angličtině vyjádřená jinými prostředky, než odpovídajícím slovním druhem. Tato práce se zaměřuje na divergentní protějšky českých adverbií zřetele a míry. Teoretická část popisuje morfologii adverbií, jejich sémantické členění a využití v syntaxi v obou jazycích. Empirickou část práce tvoří analýza dvě stě jedenáct příkladů, které byly získané z česko-anglického paralelního korpusu Intercorp. Divergentní protějšky šesti adverbií zřetele a pěti adverbií míry jsou rozděleny do kategorií s ohledem na slovní druh, frekvenci a sémantiku.

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS 0 Introduction Theoretical background Characteristics of English adverbs Morphology of English adverbs De-adjectival adverbs in ly Adverbs with suffixes -wise, -ward(s), and ways Adverbs homonymous with adjectives Adverbs homonymous with prepositions Adverbs not derived or derived from other parts of speech Gradation of adverbs Characteristics of Czech adverbs Morphology of Czech adverbs Adverbs from nouns Adverbs from adjectives Adverbs from verbs Adverbs from numerals Adverbs from pronouns Adverbs from adverbs Syntax and semantics of adverbs in English Adverbs as clause element: adverbials Adverbs as modifiers Adverbs modifying adjectives Adverbs modifying other adverbs Adverbs modifying other elements Adverbs as complements of prepositions Adverbs with degree complements Adverbs standing alone Syntax and semantics of adverbs in Czech Adverbial of place Adverbial of time Adverbial of manner Adverbial of manner proper Adverbial of measure and intensity... 24

6 1.6.6 Adverbial of respect Adverbial of accompanying circumstances Adverbial of cause (reason, purpose) Modal and stative adverbs The correspondence between English and Czech adverbs Methodology Research The adverb of respect fyzicky The adverb of respect společensky The adverb of respect citově The adverb of respect duševně The adverb of respect životně The adverb of respect politicky The adverb of measure částečně The adverb of measure značně The adverb of measure nadobro The adverb of measure poněkud The adverb of measure úplně Conclusion References Czech Summary Appendix... 58

7 ABBREVIATIONS Adj. Adjective AdvR Adverb of regard/respect AmE American English BrE FSP NP PP British English Functional sentence perspective Noun phrase Prepositional phrase SYMBOLS * A preceding asterisk indicates an unacceptable structure. / Slash indicates free alternatives LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb fyzicky Table 2: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb společensky Table 3: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb citově Table 4: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb duševně Table 5: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb životně Table 6: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb politicky Table 7: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb částečně Table 8: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb značně Table 9: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb nadobro Table 10: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb poněkud Table 11: The English counterparts of the Czech adverb úplně Table 12: Overall frequency of the counterparts

8 0 Introduction This study focuses on divergent counterparts of the Czech adverbs expressing respect and measure. As there are cases in which Czech adverbs are expressed in English by different means, it is interesting to investigate frequency and possible tendencies in the divergent realisations of the Czech adverbs. The theoretical part of this paper describes the characteristics of English and Czech adverbs, their morphology, semantics, and syntax. The sources for the theoretical background were grammars; for English mainly A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (Quirk et al., 1985), Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al., 1999), The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002), Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny (Dušková, 2006), and for Czech Příruční mluvnice češtiny (Karlík et al., 1996) and Mluvnice češtiny 2: tvarosloví (Petr et al., 1986). The correspondence between the languages is also described, including existing studies concerning the constancy of adverbs and their divergent realisations, i.e. Hladký s (1891) A contrastive view of adverb frequency in English and in Czech. Hladký s work also provides data for formulating assumptions in our study. The empirical part of our study includes the analysis of the total of 211 divergent counterparts of five Czech adverbs of measure (částečně, značně, nadobro, poněkud, úplně) and six adverbs expressing respect (fyzicky, společensky, citově, politicky, duševně, životně) against the background of the corresponding counterparts. The analysis will include classifications according to word classes which represent the divergent realisations, and also their semantics. The ratio of divergent and corresponding counterparts will be provided for each adverb. Finally, the conclusion will summarise and evaluate the data analysed in the empirical part. 8

9 1 Theoretical background 1.1 Characteristics of English adverbs The two most fundamental lexical categories (parts of speech) in English, verbs and nouns are not sufficient enough to express every shade of meaning needed (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002:526). The gradation of meaning in English is carried out by alternation, clarification, or adjustment of the meaning contribution of nouns and verbs expressed by means of words (ibid.: 526). In this regard, the basic distinction can be made between adjectives, typically modifying nouns, and adverbs, modifying predominantly verbs. This provides a base for one of definitions of adverb as a grammatically distinct category of words whose members are characteristically used to modify verbs but not nouns. (ibid.: 562). Furthermore, adverbs are not restricted to modify only verbs; they modify all the other categories prepositions, determinatives, and especially adjectives and other adverbs (ibid.: 526). Considering nouns as exception from the range of categories adverbs modify, it is important to distinguish between nouns and noun phrases. Adverbs do not occur as attributive modifiers within a nominal, but many can occur as external modifier with an NP as head (ibid.: 563). An example Almost the whole book where the NP the whole book is the head may be contrasted with *She congratulated him on his [almost success], where it is the noun success which is inadmissibly modified (ibid.: 563). It is also worth mentioning that although marginally, an adverb can be found as a modification of a noun, particularly in postposition, for example stay abroad, on the way back, the example above/below. The case of an adverb converted in an adjective when functioning as premodification of a noun is rare, for example the then idol of womankind. Adverbs hardly, scarcely, nearly, almost, and else occur with indefinite pronouns (and adverbs) (Dušková, 2006:156). Adverbs are numerous in English and their usage is frequent; almost every sentence of more than but trivial length contains adjectives and /or adverbs (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 526). In comparison with other major lexical word-classes (noun, adjective, verb), the adverb is the least homogenous class and the hardest to define (Givón, 1993:71). In other words, adverb is the most nebulous and puzzling of the traditional word classes (Quirk et al., 1985:438). The heterogeneity reflects the semantics, syntax and morphology of adverbs and it is also the result of the possibility of an adverb to modify such a wide range of expressions (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 563). All adverbs do not modify all the categories listed as possible for an adverb to modify; for example very to a high degree and too in sense 9

10 excessively modify adjectives and adverbs (and a few PPs), but not verbs or NPs or clauses. On the other hand, such adverbs as only and even differ from most adverbs because of their ability to occur with wide range of heads (ibid.: 563). Another fact contributing to the heterogeneity is that many semantic sub-classes of adverbs are coded either by one-word adverbs or by more complex syntactic constructions, consequently adverbs as a grammatical category span the range between the lexical and the syntactic (Givón, 1993:71). 1.2 MORPHOLOGY OF ENGLISH ADVERBS The great majority of English adverbs are morphologically complex, which differentiates them from nouns, verbs and adjectives (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 564). In terms of morphology, it is possible to distinguish three classes of adverbs of which two are closed classes (simple and compound) and one is an open class (derivational): i. Simple adverbs: e.g.: just, only, well, back, down, near, out ii. Compound adverbs: e.g.: somehow, somewhere, therefore, whereupon iii. Derivational adverbs: e.g.: oddly, clockwise, sideways, schoolboy-fashion (Quirk et al., 1985:438). Biber et al. (1999:540) mention also a class of fixed phrases which are used as adverbs, are invariant in form, and the component words rarely retain their independent meaning. Those are for example of course, kind of, and at least De-adjectival adverbs in ly A significantly high proportion of adverbs is formed from adjectives by suffixation of ly. Many Adj + -ly forms may be paraphrased as in an Adj manner/way (e.g. careful-ly), or to and Adj degree (e.g. extremely), but numerous ly adverbs do not have this kind of meaning, and it is therefore important to point out that there is no simple and regular relation between adjectives and their ly adverb counterparts (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 565). Concerning the ly suffixation of adjectives, the final y (post-consonant as well as postvocalic) changes to i before the suffix ly; e.g. noisy ~ noisily. The exception is adverbs formed from monosyllabic adjectives whose only vowel is y; e.g. shy ~ shyly. The spelling of dry varies, both drily and dryly is possible. 10

11 Adjectives ending in spelling in post-consonant syllabic l, written le, form adverbs by adding only y (as the initial l in suffix merges with final l of adjective). In this case, adjectives and adverbs have an identical number of syllables; e.g. gentle ~gently. Adjectives ending in spelling only in l (post-vocalic) form adverb regularly by suffixation of ly, thus in pronunciation there is an additional syllable; e.g. eternal ~ eternally. Adjectives ending in le after a vowel form adverbs regularly; e.g. sole ~ solely. Adjectives ending in ll form adverbs by suffixing only y; e.g. full ~fully. Adjectives ending in ic form adverbs with suffix ically. This anomaly however concerns only spelling as the suffix ically is pronounced [ikli] (the same as if it were written icly); e.g. economic ~ economically. The exception is public ~ publicly. Adjectives ending in a vowel and a silent e drop this e before the adverbial suffix; e.g. true ~ truly. Adverb for whole has irregular spelling: wholly. Adverb for good is morphologically unrelated suppletive form: well (Dušková, 2006: 157-8). Even though a great many adjectives form the base for ly adverbs, there are also many that do not. The following example shows only a few: afraid, inferior, silly, improved, European, blue, female, foreign, modern, tall, etc. (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 566). Some of these adjectives illustrate morphological constraints: ly does not attach to adjectives beginning with the prefix a or, in general, ending with the Latin comparative suffix or, or to adjectives that themselves end in ly (whether or not this represents the adjective-forming suffix ly). Likewise most adjectives based on the past participle do not form adverbs, though there are some exceptions, such as tiredly or determinedly (ibid.: 566). Some of the mentioned adjectives illustrate semantic constraints, as the ly suffix does not attach to adjectives derived from place-names or those denoting colours. However, there are few colour terms that can be marginally found: blackly, whitely, greenly, redly. Lastly, there is a set of adjectives without ly adverbial counterpart which include many adjectives denoting size or age (ibid.:566). Because of the fact that the suffix ly is an adverbial as well as an adjectival suffix, some words ending in ly are assigned to both adverbs and adjectives. It concerns words denoting 11

12 time periods but also other: hourly, weekly, early, leisurely, deadly, etc. (Dušková, 2006: 158.) Adverbs with suffixes -wise, -ward(s), and ways Adverbs formed by suffix wise express adverbial of manner, i.e. clockwise. Their usage in British English may seem rather obsolescent (Dušková, 2006:160). The suffixes wise and ways may sometimes be alternative, as lengthwise ~ lengthways. A more recent use of wise is illustrated by adverbs as moneywise, healthwise, plotwise, or weatherwise, with the sense as regards which yields numerous nonce-forms, largely restricted to informal style, and more common in AmE than in BrE (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 567). To put it differently, the adverbial suffix wise is used in contemporary spoken language to express respect. This usage is however not considered as entirely formal (Dušková, 2006:160). There are also nouns which in compounded forms acquire a character of suffix: fashion and style as in she cooks French-style or they stood by the door, sentinel-fashion (ibid.: 160). The adverbial suffix ward(s) forms adverbs with the meaning of toward(s). While the British English usually prefers the form wards, the ward form is used in American English (ibid.: 160) Adverbs homonymous with adjectives Some adverbs are specific in having an identical form with adjectives. This overlap is more typical for non-standard speech, but some adverbs of this kind can be found within the standard variety where they are restricted to informal style. For example in sentence She works hard in comparison with an adjective in the sentence She is a hard worker, hard is one of the adverbs that are stylistically neutral. There is also an adverb hardly which is not a possible alternation for the first sentence hard, because the meaning of these two adverbs is different. A very informal use of real, e.g. That s real nice of you is contrasted with really used in other styles. The non-standard employment of regular in sentence like They pay the rent regular differs from the standard requirement of the ly suffix form regularly. This usage is however restricted to the post verbal position. It is through the popular culture, e.g. song lyrics, that many of the non-standard varieties are well-known to speakers of Standard English (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 567). Among other adverbs which have a primary (not derived) form and at the same time the -ly form where the two are different in meaning belong for example: deep-deeply, high-highly, 12

13 late-lately, near-nearly. There are some adverbs which use the forms with and without the suffix in free variation, i.e. go slow(ly), don t speak so loud(ly), I bought it cheap(ly), he wants it quick(ly). Finally, forms without the suffix are often used in coordination, e.g. they laughed loud and long (Dušková, 2006: ) Adverbs homonymous with prepositions Numerous adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, e.g. walk about the town - there was no one about, above the average - as was stated above, across, after, along, behind, beyond, etc. (Dušková, 2006:161). In example as big as usual the first as is an adverb but the second (which requires a complement) is a preposition. Similarly, but is an adverb in construction We can but hope ( only ) while it is a preposition is nothing but trouble (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 570) Adverbs not derived or derived from other parts of speech Adverbs not derived from adjectives are either simple or derived mainly from prepositional noun phrases. On the basis of semantic classification they can be divided into: Adverbs of place: here, there, hence, away, abroad, outdoors, somewhere, etc. Adverbs of time: now, soon, often, never, yet, seldom, sometimes, always, yesterday, etc. Adverbs of measure: very, too, enough, quite, rather, somewhat, etc. Adverbs with coordinating function: so, thus, still, yet, however, nevertheless, therefore, instead, anyway, etc. (Dušková, 2006: 160-1) Gradation of adverbs Adverbs with gradable meaning can be intensified and graded (Dušková, 2006: 162). It is not surprising that adverbs and adjectives are usually discussed together as they are the most alike lexical categories in English. This similarity can be well illustrated in their grading. The same means are applied for gradation of both adjectives and adverbs; that is an inflectional or analytical system. Monosyllabic adverbs not derived by a suffix are inflected, e.g. soon - sooner - soonest, long - longer - longest. There is an exception in that the adverb early is formed by a suffix but is gradable by inflection: earlier - earliest (ibid.: 162). Analytic comparatives and superlatives of adverbs as well as adjectives are formed by means of the degree adverbs more and most in pre-head position: useful - more useful - most useful (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 534). 13

14 Certain adverbs are irregular in grading: well - better - best, badly/ill - worse - worst, little - less - least, far - farther/further - farthest/furthest. Nominalized adverbs occur after prepositions: at most, at least, at the latest, not in the least, at last, etc. For expressing a lesser extent the same means are employed as in the case of adjectives: probably - less probably - least probably (Dušková, 2006: 162-3). Nevertheless, both comparative and superlative forms are used more commonly for adjectives than adverbs. Adverbs in comparative degree are used occasionally while superlatives form are used very rarely (Biber et al., 1999: 544). 1.3 Characteristics of Czech adverbs An adverb in Czech is one of the basic uninflected lexical categories (parts of speech) which expresses mainly circumstances in which the content of verb is realized, and in which the content of adjective or another adverb is valid (Karlík et al., 1996:338). A high number of old and original adverbs (not derived from the synchronic point of view) lacks any common suffix. The morphological form of adverbs which is given by their origin ensures that there is no confusion with inflected lexical categories (ibid.: 340). Great dynamism is typical for adverbs - as other parts of speech can be often seen in their function, especially nouns but also adjectives, pronouns or verbs (e.g. ráno, večer, doma). (ibid.: 341). In present time, the most productive way of forming adverbs in Czech is their derivation from adjectives. However, it is not possible to form adverbs from certain types of adjectives those derived from pronouns, numerals, and adverbs. There are morphological and semanticosyntactic restrictions in the process of adverb forming (Knappová, 1973: 11-18). 1.4 MORPHOLOGY OF CZECH ADVERBS Adverbs from nouns express circumstances of place, time, degree, and manner. i. Suffix mo forms sporadic adverbs describing the manner of action: koňmo ii. Adverbisation of singular instrumental forms manner adverbs: ladem, předem, vrchem, celkem, bokem, skokem, tryskem, dílem, omylem, honem, kvapem, časem, šeptem, žertem, právem; compounds: venkoncem, horempádem, mimochodem; plural instrumental adverbs: hlady, smíchy, strachy; place 14

15 iii. adverbs: zadem, spodem, vrchem, dolem, kolem; and complex adverbs: horemdolem, kolkolem, krížemkrážem. By the same process were formed less numerous manner adverbs from the feminine: náhodou, námatkou, stranou, cestou (place), většinou (degree), chvílemi (time) (Karlík et al., 1996: 218). Adverbisation of prepositional cases forms (according to the semantics of the noun) adverbs of place, time, degree, and manner. The most frequent forms are: do: dohromady, dokola, dopoledne, dopředu, doslova k/ku: kvečeru, kvůli, kupředu, kuprospěchu na: načas, nahlas, nahoru, nakonec, například, naruby, naschvál From de-adjectival nouns: nablízku, naboso, načerno, nadlouho, nadobro, nahrubo, najisto, nakřivo, nalevo, naplno, naprázdno, nasucho, etc. This type of creating adverbs is highly productive. nad: nadmíru, nadpočet o: opravdu, osamotě ob: občas, obden od: odpoledne, odpočátku, odzadu; from de-adjectival bases: odleva, odmalička, odmala, odnedávna po: podél, polopatě, popřípadě, pořád, potmě; from de-adjectival bases: polehku, pomalu, poslepu, potichu, postaru před(e): předevčírem, přednedávnem s: shůry, spatra, stěží v: vpředu, vskrytu, vzádu vz (extinct preposition): vzhůru z(e): zbrusu, zčásti, zezadu, zkraje, zrána. De-adjectives are more common: zblízka, zcela, zčerstva, zdaleka, zešikma, zhruba, zkrátka, zleva, zostra, zrovna, zřídka, zticha (Karlík et al., 1996: 218) Adverbs from adjectives For the lexical category of adverbs it is characteristic to have a close relationship with adjectives in terms of word formation. The de-adjectival adverbs can thus be divided according to the type of adjective they origin from into qualitative and relational adverbs. 15

16 i. Qualitative adverbs are for example: příjemně, pěkně, smutně, bíle, sladce, vysoko. Among some of their attributes is the ability to form pairs of antonyms, e.g. vesele - smutně, snadno - těžko, vlídně - nevlídně; they are capable of gradation: rychle - rychlej - nejrychlej, dobře - lépe - nejlépe; for some of them it is possible to compound with suffixes pře- and prain order to express an absolute degree of quality: překrásně, přesmutně, pradávno, pramálo; and they can be modified by words like velmi, zcela, neobyčejně, zvlášť (Petr et al., 1986: 191). ii. Some relational adverbs are: bosky, hrdinsky, přátelsky, vědecky, hlučně. They are gradable very rarely, e.g. vnitřně- vnitřněji-nejvnitřněji, and some of them may be modified by words as velmi, zcela, etc. (ibid.: 191). A different approach to the description of de-adjectival adverbs is based on the form of the suffix they acquire. a. Suffix -e/-ě is typical for the majority of adverbs derived from adjectives. This means is highly productive although it is not applicable to possessive adjectives (bratrův, psí), to some action adjectives (vedoucí), to adjectives expressing material (vlněný) and to relational adjectives. The alternative -ě is applied after ď, ť, ň, b, p, m and the alternative -e in other cases. Some examples are: hebce, hladce, dobře, blaze, krásně, perfektně, etc. b. Suffix -o is used for forming adverbs from the majority of primary (not derived) adjectives ending in -hý, -chý, -ký, -lý, -tý, -vý: draho, dlouho, ticho, veselo, teplo, často, pusto, etc. c. Suffix -y derives adjectives ending in -ský/-cký: česky, polsky, lajdácky d. Suffix -ky derives sporadic adverbs as pěšky, bosky, nevědomky (Karlík et al., 1996: ) Adverbs from verbs express action as accompanying circumstance. They may be derived by suffix -mo (klečmo, kradmo, letmo) or suffix -ky (plačky, mlčky, volky nevolky) (ibid.: 220) Adverbs from numerals represent two semantic groups: i. Multiplicity can be expressed by addition of final element -krát to the cardinal numerals: jedenkrát, dvakrát, stokrát. Adverbs from indefinite and pronominal 16

17 ii. numeral are formed similarly: mnohokrát, málokrát; kolikrát, tolikrát (ibid.: 221). Circumstance of chronological order can be achieved by prefix po- and suffix -é/í addition: poprvé, podruhé, poněkolikáté (ibid.: 221) Adverbs from pronouns present mainly formation already historically closed and the mechanism of this derivation is not thoroughly clear. Some examples are: jinde, jinam, jinudy, odjinud, jindy, jinak (ibid.: 221-2) Adverbs from adverbs comprise for instance strengthening and weakening of meaning. i. Comparative form is irregular in the most frequent adverbs (e.g. dobře-lépe, ii. zle/špatně hůř(e), málo-méně) while other adverbs form if by suffixation of eji/ěji (e.g. hlouběji, hustěji) Superlative is formed by adding the prefix nej to the comparative form (e.g. nejlépe, nejhlouběji). Rarely is the strengthening also expressed by duplication (e.g. užuž, jenjen). On the other hand, weakening may be expressed by combining a comparative form méně with the basic form of adverb (e.g. méně příznivě) (ibid.: 222-3). 1.5 SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS OF ADVERBS IN ENGLISH According to Quirk et al. (1985:439) there are two types of syntactic function that characterize the traditional adverbs, but an adverb need have only one of these: i. Clause element adverbial: He quite forgot about it. ii. Premodifier of adjective or adverb: They are quite happy/happily married Adverbs as clause element: adverbials If an adverb functions in a clause itself as adverbial, i.e. as an element distinct from subject, verb, object and complement, it is usually an optional element peripheral to the structure of the clause (Quirk et al., 1985: 440). Adverbs functioning as the clause element adverbial can be, according to Quirk et al. (1985:440), distinguished by four grammatical functions: adjuncts, subjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts. Adjuncts and subjuncts are relatively integrated within the structure of the clause whereas disjuncts and conjuncts have a more peripheral relation in the clause. 17

18 In terms of semantics, disjuncts express an evaluation of what is being said either with respect to the form of communication or to its meaning. Disjuncts are identified with the speaker s authority for, or comment on, the accompanying clause: Frankly, I m tired. Fortunately, no one complained. They are probably at home. Conjuncts express the speaker s assessment of the relation between two linguistic units, e.g: All our friends are going to Paris this summer. We, however, are going to London. If they open all the windows, then I m leaving. I didn t invite her. She wouldn t have come, anyway (Quirk et al., 1985: 440). A different terminology is used by Biber et al. (1999: 549) who distinguish three major types of adverbials, all of which can be realised by adverbs or adverb phrases: i. Circumstance adverbials add information about the action or state that is described in the clause, giving details about factors such as time, manner, and place: He took it slowly but uncomprehendingly. Givón emphasises the flexibility of the position of manner adverbs in the clause which shows their syntactic heterogeneity. He also points out that despite a consistent derivational marking of adverbs formed from adjectives with suffix -ly they are semantically heterogeneous, so that their morphological unity is not matched by unified function or meaning (Givón, 1993:71-77). ii. Stance adverbials convey the speaker/writer s assessment of the proposition in the clause. They include comment about: the epistemic conditions on the clause, e.g. the level of doubt/certainty with maybe, probably, undoubtedly the speaker/writer s attitude towards the proposition, e.g. unfortunately, surprisingly, amazingly the style in which the proposition is being conveyed, e.g. honestly, frankly iii. Linking adverbials serve to connect stretches of text- phrases, sentences, paragraphs or longer: e.g. nevertheless, therefore (Biber et al., 1999:549). 18

19 1.5.2 Adverbs as modifiers Adverbs modifying adjectives One of the primary functions of adverbs is to modify adjectives, (Biber et al., 1999: 544) and most frequently the modifying adverb is a scaling device called an intensifier (Quirk et al., 1985: 445) occurring with gradable adjectives. A distinction is made between two sets of intensifiers: i. Amplifiers scale upward from an assumed norm, e.g. highly intelligent, awfully sorry, extremely dangerous ii. Downtoners have a general lowering effect, usually scaling downwards from an assumed norm, e.g. fairly small, rather late, pretty rare More commonly adverbs precede the adjective they modify, but postmodification also occurs. The adverbs enough and ago are restricted to the position after the adjectives they modify and there are also other adverbs that can be postponed, e.g. It is rich nutritionally with high calcium content. Corpus findings suggest that there is a higher frequency of an adjective with a modifying adverb combinations in conversation than in academic prose, but on the other hand, academic prose proves greater diversity in the adjectives and adverbs that collocate (Biber et al., 545) Adverbs modifying other adverbs Adverbs also serve as premodifiers of other adverbs. Similar sets of intensifiers are used for adverbs and adjectives, e.g. he spoke extremely quickly; they are smoking very heavily. Adverbs modifying other adverbs can only be intensifiers (though there is manner modification by quietly in quietly assertive, it is not possible in *he spoke quietly assertively) (Quirk et al., 1985:449). Corpus findings indicate that adverbs are less common as modifiers of other adverbs than as modifiers of adjectives (Biber et al., 1999:546.) Adverbs modifying other elements Adverbs can also modify noun phrases (or parts of noun phrases), prepositional phrases, particles, numerals or measurements: It came as quite a surprise, I ve done about half a side, it s really filled the room right up, etc. Although they occur commonly as premodifiers, postmodification can be found as well (Biber et al., 1999:548). 19

20 1.5.3 Adverbs as complements of prepositions Numerous adverbs signifying time and place function as complement of prepositions. Time adverbs here and there take most prepositions, e.g.: come over here!, how do we get out of there? (Quirk et al., 1985:454) Adverbs with degree complements The whole adverb phrase functions as an adverbial in: i. adverb -er + than-phrase/clause OR more/less + adverb + thanphrase/clause He rode it oftener than ever. ii. as + adverb + as-phrase/clause The normal scan must be resumed as quickly as possible. iii. so + adverb + that-clause It happened so fast that I didn t even realise I had fallen off. iv. so + adverb + as to-clause He went so far as to write home some vague information of his feelings about business and its prospects. v. too + adverb + to-clause The situation has deteriorated too far to repair. vi. adverb enough + to-clause I couldn t turn quickly enough to follow them. Degree adverbs in all of these construction can as well occur without the following degree complement construction, as in You shouldn t go to bed too early! (Biber et al., 1999:549-51) Adverbs standing alone Adverbs can stand alone as structurally unconnected elements or even as complete sentences in conversation (and direct reports of dialogue on another register). They can serve both to propose and answer questions, e.g.: You can still vote if you lost it. Really?; Are they that good? Definitely (ibid.: ). The heterogeneity of the class of adverbs may be of importance in connection with variety of classifications; in this particular case the semantic categories of adverbs/adverbials. Biber et al. (1999) provide a description of semantic categories in which they point out the fact that the 20

21 meaning of an adverb may vary with context of use as for example some adverbs can have both literal and metaphorical meaning. Seven main semantic categories are discussed: i. Adverbs of place show position, direction, or distance: there, backward, far ii. Adverb of time convey information about position, frequency, duration, or relationship: now, always, then, already iii. Manner adverbs express information about how an action is performed: happily, quickly, fast, well iv. Adverbs of degree describe the extent to which a characteristic holds. They can be of two kinds: Amplifiers/intensifiers: very, extremely Diminishers/downtoners: slightly, quite, almost v. Additive and restrictive adverbs which express that one item is being added to another (e.g. too, also) or they may emphasise the importance of one part of the proposition by restricting the truth value of the proposition either primarily or exclusively to that part, respectively. An example of the latter is: The idea of anybody, Marge especially, liking that wall-eyed ox in preference to Dicky made Tom smile. vi. Stance adverbs are distinguished according to the three types of stance they realize: Epistemic stance adverbs: certainty or doubt (probably, definitely), reality or actuality of proposition (actually, really), evidence on which is proposition based (apparently, reportedly), limitations on a proposition (mainly, typically), hedges used to convey imprecision (kind of, sort of, roughly). Attitude stance adverbs telling speaker/writer s attitude towards a proposition (surprisingly, unfortunately, curiously) Style stance adverbs commenting on the style of speaking (honestly, frankly, quite simply) vii. Linking adverbs contribute to the cohesion of the text by making semantic connections between spans of discourse. They function as adverbials. Their semantic categories are: Enumeration and addition (e.g. first, secondly, thirdly) Summation (e.g. altogether, overall) Apposition (e.g. namely, i.e.) 21

22 Result/inference (e.g. therefore, thus) Contrast/concession (e.g. though, however) Transition (e.g. now, incidentally) It is worth noting that also according to Huddleston and Pullum (2002:563) the adverb [in the practice of traditional grammar] is a miscellaneous or residual category the category to which words are assigned if they do not satisfy the more specific criteria for nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and conjunction. Undoubtedly, the definition of the adverb category as being most heterogeneous and hardest to define is well-founded. 1.6 SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS OF ADVERBS IN CZECH The primary function of an adverb is that of a clause element adverbial. In this function the adverb is dominated by verb, adjective, or adverb. The secondary function of an adverb can be the subject/object (Doma znamená zde), predicative (Bratr je nahoře; Už jsem potichu) or modification (krok vlevo, vajíčka naměkko) (Petr et al., 1986: 188-9). An adverbial in Czech, similarly to English, modifies verb, adjective, or adverb and expresses several circumstances or relations (Šmilauer, 1966: 697). Although this paper is concerned with adverbs and their syntactic function it is worth noting that also other phrases can be found in the position of adverbial, i.e. nominal phrases. An adverbial is the only clause element whose classification in traditional grammars is based on semantics (Karlík et al., 1996:438). In this regard, the distinction between an adverbial of place, time, manner, measure and cause in broad sense is made; sometimes adverbial of respect is considered as a special type (Karlík et al., 1996:449) Adverbial of place denotes in broad sense a place to which the content of clause element expressed by verb, adjective or whole clause refers. From the semantic point of view it is possible to distinguish adverbials that answer the question kde? kam?, odkud?, and kudy?. i. Adverbial of place for the question kde? The basic means of expression are adverbs of place (e.g. nahoře, dole, uvnitř, vespod). ii. Adverbial of place for the question kam? 22

23 The primary source of these adverbials are adverbs of place expressing direction (e.g. nahoru, dolů, ven, vzhůru, domů); promoninal adverbs of place (e.g. tam, jinam, sem). iii. Adverbial of place for the question odkud? Similarly, the primary means of expression are place adverbs (e.g. zdaleka, zblízka, zdola, shora); pronominal adverbs of place (e.g. odtud, odněkud). iv. Adverbial of place for the question kudy? As in previous cases, adverbs of place (e.g. spodem, cestou), and pronominal adverbs of place (e.g. tudy, někudy) constitute the basis for expression of this type of adverbial (Karlík et al., 1996: ). The class of adverbs of place can be further subdivided into sub-groups according to their specific semantic meaning: location (nahoře, uprostřed, blízko), starting point (odshora, zvenku, zdaleka), direction (nahoru, dovnitř, ven), movement environment (horem, zadem, křížem krážem) (Petr et al., 1986:190) Adverbial of time denotes various time points or intervals to which the content of clause element expressed by verb, adjective or whole clause is related. With regard to meaning the distinction can be made between adverbials answering the question kdy?, odkdy?, dokdy?, jak dlouho? etc. Primary means of expression of these adverbials are adverbs of time, pronominal adverbs of time, and adverbial cases. Adverbials for questions na kdy? and ze kdy? are marginal. Other questions may also be po jakou dobu?, za jak dlouho?, na jak dlouho?, jak často? (Karlík et al., 1996: ). Further semantic division is possible also in the class of adverbs of time: location in time (dnes, ráno, brzy), starting time point (odedávna, odjakživa), end time point (dodnes, nadosmrti), time span (dlouho, krátce, věčně), and others (Petr et al., 1986:190) Adverbial of manner determines manner circumstances in broad sense. There is quite a large group of classes subsumed under this heading. On the basis of meaning, Šmilauer (1966) classifies adverbials of manner into four basic groups: adverbial of time, place, manner and cause with subsequent division of manner class into: manner proper, measure, instrument, and respect, and further division of cause class into: cause, result, purpose, condition, and concession. He discusses adverbials of source, origin, and result separately as according to him these types have such a distinct character that they can be hardy assigned into any of the 23

24 four basic classes. As their common attribute he states the impossibility of being expressed by a subordinate clause. A closer description of manner adverbs will be based on Karlík et al. (1996) whose classification includes eight major groups with further sub-divisions Adverbial of manner proper determines the quality of action (Spí klidně) and properties (tmavě zelený). They answer the questions jak?, jakým způsobem?. Adverbials of manner do not represent circumstances but inner characteristics of an action (or state) resulting from the action itself. Thus they are analogous to modification of the noun (Karlík et al., 1996:452). Adverbs of manner proper are for example: dobře, výborně, rozumně, vesele, svěže, růžově, hezky, vysoce, snadno, nahlas, mlčky, potichu, etc. Words of Italian origin are also included in this sub-class: allegro, forte, dolce, crescendo, etc. (Petr et al., 1986: 190) Adverbial of measure and intensity denotes quality or intensity of action (Trochu ses opozdil), attributes (velmi starý), and circumstances of manner character (příliš snadno). The question for this class are of this type: kolik?, jak mnoho?, colloquial jak moc? (Karlík et al., 1996:456). Adverbs of degree (intensity) are for example: velmi, značně, hodně, úplně, nadobro, príliš, neobyčejně, dost, částečně, trochu, málo (Petr et al., 1986:190), tuze, moc, poněkud, zcela, vůbec; with substitutes: kolik, tolik (Karlík et al., 1996:338) Adverbial of respect denotes with respect to what an action is valid and thus it relativizes the validity of what is denoted by verb phrase of adjectival modification. Adverbs which express this type of respect are for example: sexuálně, finančně, syntakticky, chuťově (Karlík et al., 1996:463-66), celkově, početně, povahově, vzhledově, vnějškově, vnitřně, prostorově, místně, funkčně, umělecky, politicky (Petr et al., 1986:190). This adverbial can be also expressed by prepositional phrases or subordinate clauses (Karlík et al., 1996:463-66). The adverbs and adverbials of respect (sometimes also referred to as adverbials of regard - AdvR) may be paraphrased by means of the phrase po stránce + adj. (in regard to, with respect to, from the viewpoint of). According to Daneš and Knappová (1972), they should be clearly distinguished from adverbials of manner. In Czech syntax, adverbials of respect are discussed either under adverbials of manner (Gebauer, Kopečný, Bauer Grepl) next to adverbials of manner proper, etc., or they are considered as a part of superordinate class of adverbials of manner (Gebauer Ertl, Šmilauer, Havránek Jedlička). Lastly, they can be 24

25 seen as a completely separate class (Trávniček). The last distinction mentioned seems the most appropriate to Daneš and Knappová. They provide an example illustrating the semantic structure of the construction containing AdvR-phrases: (1) Jan je tělesně nemocen (John /A/ is bodily /AdvR/ sick /B/). (2) Biologicky hodnotná potrava (biological valuable food). (3) Jan duševně trpí (John suffers physically). AdvR may be viewed as a qualifier inserted between A and B, restricting thus the statement of the relation of B to A to that aspect or component of A which is specified by AdvR (in particular, by the underlying noun from which the adverbs has been derived). The verb expressing B belongs either to the class of agentive verbs with an object denoting an affected thing, or to several classes of intransitive verbs with non-agentive subject. As a rule, AdvR qualifies the non-agentive participant of the construction (i.e., the object of the first class, or the subject of the other classes), thus contrasting with the manner adverbials, which qualify the agent. The position of AdvR in the construction with a verb is revealed in the following correspondences: plavání osvěžuje (Karlovo) tělo ~ plavání (Karla) tělesně osvěžuje ~ Karel tělesně osvěžený plaváním ~ tělesně osvěžující plavání ~ tělesné osvěžení (an attributive phrase). A very strong tendency towards expressing AdvR by means of adverbs converted from relational adjectives (derived from nouns) may be traced in Modern Standard Czech (especially in certain functional styles). This expansiveness shows itself also in the increasing productivity of some derivational types of relational adjectives (and, consequently, adverbs). They may be classified, according to the meaning of the underlying nouns, into several content groups (various aspects or components of beings: duchovně, tělesně, životně, zdravotně, emočně, citově, povahově, fyzicky; social institutions and relations: administrativně, církevně, morálně, vojensky; phenomena from the sphere of culture, science, economy, and technology: kulturně, divadelně, vědecky, foneticky, objektivně, finančně; various general properties of matter: barevně, vzhledově; etc.) (Daneš - Knappová, 1972: ). The tendency towards the forming of new adverbs of respect is evident from many neologisms emerging together with the cultural and scientific progress: internetově, globalizačně, mediálně, genderově, golfově, mezikulturně, etc. (Martincová, 2005: ) Adverbial of accompanying circumstances denotes various circumstances in which there is some person, animal or thing specified in the position of subject or object during some action or state. It is expressed by adverbs created mostly from adjectives: e.g. opakoval to trochu zaraženě, kráčí vzpříjmeně. 25

26 1.6.8 Adverbial of cause (reason, purpose) These adverbs answer the question proč, z jaké příčiny, za jakým účelem: hlady, smíchy, vzteky, bezdůvodně, (ne)úmyslně, náhodou, naschvál, schválně, na zlost, vanzdory (Karlík et al., 1996:339), natruc, omylem, nechtě, chtíc nechtíc, volky nevolky, náhodou, právě, oprávněně, pracovně, složenbně, etc. (Petr et al., 1986:190). The substitutes are: proč, nač, regionally na co proč, proto, colloquial kdovíproč, čertvíproč, etc. (Karlík et al., 1996:339). Much like the previous classes, adverbs/adverbials of cause can have more specific subclassification, for example adverbs of reason (omylem, úmyselně) or purpose (nazlost, pracovně) etc. (Petr et al., 1986:190) Modal and stative adverbs The so-called modal and stative adverbs can be discussed as a separate class of adverbs with a specialized predicative function. Although they are also formed from adjectival bases their usual suffix is -o. Only a few of them have the form identical with adverbs of manner (e.g. pěkně, dobře). Modal adverbs express possibility, desirability or necessity of action expressed in infinitive or subordinate clause. Their occasional competitors may be adjectives as in Je možno (možné) si vypůjčit kola. Stative adverbs express natural, mental, physical, or other states. Their function in a clause is realized with connection to forms of verb být as in Je teplo, zima, hezky, horko (Karlík et al., 1996:340). It is clear from the classification that each of the semantic groups of adverbs allows for further subdivisions within a respective class on the basis of more specific semantic meaning. The fact that the typology and classification of Czech adverbs in not consistent and may differ from author to author bears similarity to the English system of adverbs where this phenomenon occurs as well. The heterogeneity and difficulty in describing the class of adverbs is thus shared by both the languages. 1.7 The correspondence between English and Czech adverbs Based on the previous description, it can be said that adverbs in English and Czech are more or less corresponding; they represent a similar lexical and syntactic unit. According to Dušková (2006), however, there are cases in which English and Czech show differences; 26

27 cases in which a Czech adverb is not expressed in English at all or it corresponds to different items. Czech adverbs tak, tedy, už, však, etc., which in spoken language are used with weakened meaning a expressive or linking particles, do not have an explicit counterpart in English; for comparison: Tak tedy začneme. - Let s start. Zbýva už málo času. - There s little time left. The resultative meaning of už is often included in the meaning of the perfect tense, e.g. I have told you several times. - Už jsem ti to řekl několikrát; or in the continuous tense, e.g. I m coming! - Už jdu! Czech modal adverbs can correspond to English verbal expressions. Adverbs expressing extrinsic modality (určitě, jistě, snad, možná, asi, etc.) often correspond to modal verbs (e.g. You must be tired. - Jistě jste unaven vedle Musíte být unaven.) or to verbonominal predication be sure, be certain, be likely, e.g. She is sure to drop in. - Určitě se zastaví. Duration expressed by Czech adverbs pořád, dál, etc. is expressed in English by verbs go on, continue, keep, e.g. He went on talking for another twenty minutes. - Mluvil dál ještě dvacet minut. She kept giggling. - Pořád se hihňala. Other instances of verbal or verbonominal correspondence of Czech adverbs are e.g. I happened to be there. - Náhodou jsem tam byl. I am sorry to disappoint you. - Bohužel vás musím zklamat. Are you serious? Do you mean it? - Myslíte to vážně? Another type of nonadverbial correspondence of Czech adverbs is an adjectival modification of a verbal noun (as opposed to adverbial modification of Czech verb), e.g. I ll give it a serious try. - Vážně se o to pokusím. He gave a faint shrug of the shoulders. - Pokrčil lehce rameny. Adjectival correspondence of Czech adverbs can be also found in coordinating constructions as The walls are nice and thick here. - Zdi jsou zde hezky (pořádně) silné (Dušková, 2006: 163-4). Concerning the frequency of divergent counterparts of Czech adverbs in English, some contrastive studies devoted to this subject, serving as a basis for the assumptions in the empirical part of this paper. According to Hladký (1981), a lower frequency of adverbs can be expected in English if compared with Czech, as a consequence of the weakened character of the English verb. From the works of Poldauf (1964) and Schubiger (1965) it is also known that Czech (and German) use adverbs more frequently as means of expressing modality. The most frequent case in Hladký s study (of an English original of The Masters and its Czech 27

28 translation) proved to be the correspondence of an adverb in both languages. In the case of the non-corresponding counterparts of Czech adverbs, the largest group consisted of English adjectives, e.g. He gave a hearty laugh. - Srdečně se zasmál. The second largest group contained English nouns as opposed to Czech adverbs, e.g. He did it with warmth. - Udělal to vřele. Smaller groups (all under 10 per cent of the corpus) contained the following types: the opposition of a Czech adverb to an English verb (mostly modal), lexical differences labelled so because the difference between the English and the Czech versions is not based on differences in grammatical structure (e.g. she retored, odpověděla břitce). All this is a manifestation of the nominal tendencies in English and is closely bound to the functional sentence perspective, the weakened verb usually functioning as transition and the nominal part as rheme of the sentence. The results of Hladký s study also confirmed that there are cases where a Czech adverb has no counterpart in the English version. At least in his contrastive view, there are more adverbs in Czech than in English and roughly every second derived Czech adverb has a non-adverbial counterpart in English (Hladký, 1981). Similarly as Dušková, Hladký as well emphasises that Czech modal or temporal adverbs can be found as counterparts to English modal and phrasal verbs, e.g. she must have known určitě vědela, he was likely to - pravděpodobně, etc. Paying attention to the category of verbs, one can find a considerably large group of the English verbs opposed to the verb + adverb combination in Czech, e.g. articulate jasně vyslovit, defined blíže objasnil, impressed hluboce zapůsobilo, persisted vytrvale odmítal, resolved pevně se rozhodl, etc. It may be said that in some cases the Czech translation is more specific, but in most cases there does not seem to be a proper Czech expression (ibid.:30). This idea is supported by the fact that even outside any context, i.e. in a dictionary, most of the Czech translations of the English verbs in question resort to a 'verb+adverb/substantive' combination (ibid.:30). Even though less numerous but quite similar to the previous one, the group of the English adjective opposed to the Czech adverb+adjective combination can be illustrated by the following cases: essential krajně důležitý, absurd hrozně legrační, vital životně důležitý, etc. (Hladký, 1981:30). Instances of the Czech adverb corresponding to the English noun ( preposition+substantive phrase ) can quite often be found in reporting clauses and the finite verb form describes the manner of speech or the non-verbal expression of some attitude, e.g. they thought in cold 28