Výzkum slovesné valence ve slovanských zemích. Karolína Skwarska Elżbieta Kaczmarska (eds.)

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1 Výzkum slovesné valence ve slovanských zemích Karolína Skwarska Elżbieta Kaczmarska (eds.) Slovanský ústav AV ČR, v. v. i. Praha

2 Vědečtí recenzenti: prof. Dr. Danuta Rytel-Schwarz Natalia Kotsyba, PhD Mgr. Bohuslava Němcová, Ph.D. doc. Dr. phil. Markus Giger Jazyková úprava: Dr. Nataliya Zanegina (ruské texty) doc. PhDr. Lucie Saicová Římalová, Ph.D. (anglický text) Erik Piper (anglická resumé) kolektiv autorů KATALOGIZACE V KNIZE NÁRODNÍ KNIHOVNA ČR Výzkum slovesné valence ve slovanských zemích / Karolína Skwarska - Elżbieta Kaczmarska (eds.). -- Vydání první. -- Praha: Slovanský ústav AV ČR, v.v.i., stran. -- (Práce Slovanského ústavu AV ČR. Nová řada; svazek 43) ISBN * 81' * 81'367 * 81 * 81'374 * slovanské jazyky - slovesa - valence (lingvistika) - teorie jazyka - jazykové slovníky - komparativní lingvistika - kolektivní monografie Slovanské jazyky [11] Vydáno s finanční podporou Akademie věd České republiky Karolína Skwarska, 2016 Slovanský ústav AV ČR, v. v. i., 2016 ISBN

3 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod 1. Introduction The Valency Database of Croatian Verbs is one of the projects of the Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics conducted by Department of General Linguistics. The Valency Database of Croatian Verbs will become the foundation of an on-line searchable dictionary and a potential printed dictionary. Six associates are working as lexicographers, and two additional associates are joint members who are working as computer experts. Since May 2013 until the end of 2014, the alphabetical list of about 900 verbs was compiled, a linguistic model has been chosen, Tschwane- Lex-based user interface for data entry was customized, and 53 lemmas of psychological verbs with 168 different sublemmas were processed. This amount of work could not have been completed if we had not done some preparations during a previous project entitled The Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs, which is a predecessor of the Valency database in a certain way. The previous project did not have an appropriate computational support (and valency descriptions were written down as a linear data) and many facets of verb processing were not well elaborated. Therefore, we have adopted some aspects of the previous processing in our work, but the overall concept was redesigned. 2. Technical aspects The question which tool should be used for the development of our dictionary was raised at the very beginning of the project. There were two acceptable paths to choose from: development of a custom Content Management System (CMS) or usage of one of the existing commercial lexicographical solutions. Given our limited funds and the fact that some of our team members had extensive experience in compiling dictionaries using one such commercial application, a decision was made not to develop a custom CMS but to use TshwaneLex. Aside from the advantage of our having experience in developing dictionaries in it, the TshwaneLex s main advantage is its user-friendliness, 103

4 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs which implies a short and easy training of a lexicographer. TshwaneLex displays, at all times, a full list of the lemma signs of all entries in the dictionary. Clicking on a lemma sign selects that lemma for viewing or editing, and displays a WYSIWYG preview of the currently selected lemma. This preview updates immediately whenever changes are made. All lemma signs appearing in the preview are hyperlinked, allowing the lexicographer to select a lemma immediately. The different fields of an entry (e.g. definitions, translation equivalents and usage examples) are displayed in different colors ( JOFFE SCHRYVER 2004). As an antecedent of the actual customization of the dictionary grammar, a SQL compatible schema was developed in order to define general tables and logical relations which are essential in order to have a fully functional on-line dictionary as well as a solid database background that will enable the usage of a Boolean based search engine. According to the predefined requirements (see chapter 4), a robust schema was developed (Figure 1). Figure 1. Simplified Schema 104

5 Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod The actual structure of the dictionary grammar (that closely corresponds to the original schema) was developed using a DTD (Document Type Definition) editing module of the TshwaneLex. A DTD is a description of the structure of the entries of a particular dictionary. Essentially, this is a description of specific types of elements that a dictionary has, as well as attributes that each of those elements may have. Our goal was to set up the DTD as completely as possible at the start of the project, allowing for minor modifications later on. This step has ensured that the final dictionary follows a logical and consistent structure throughout the project. Eventually, using a ODBC connection, the DTD was automatically transcribed into a PostgreSQL database ( accessed January ) environment. Aside from allowing multiple users simultaneously, this will result in the fact that the final dictionary could be easily published on-line as well as be query-ready for future research purposes. In the final stage of our project, the processed data will be made available to general public via web-based (HTML5 & PHP) search engine. 3. Alphabetical list, the linguistic model and examples The alphabetical list of verbs, which amounts to about 900 lemmas, is compiled manually. Since we believe that none of Croatian corpora which we have at our disposal is balanced enough to serve for an automatic extraction of most frequent verbs, we have based our list on two sources: the Croatian frequency dictionary ( MOGUŠ ET AL. 1999) and textbooks for studying Croatian as a second language ( ČILAŠ MIKULIĆ ET AL. 2011; 2012; 2013; GRGIĆ ET AL. 2013). In the beginning, we have set an alphabetical list of about 700 verb lemmas as our goal for two reasons. Firstly, various researches have proved that in order to be able to understand 90 % of texts in a language ( BOŠNJAK BOTICA 2011), it is necessary to be acquainted with 3500 words. Among these 3500 words, 20 % are verbs, which makes total of 750. Secondly, German valency dictionary VALBU (2004), which we have chosen as our model, contains 638 verb lemmas. After comparing and confronting the two lists, we have finally reached somewhat larger list of about 900 verb lemmas. The verbs in our list are divided into 35 semantic classes. Our classes are motivated by Beth Levin s classification of English verbs, but they differ from her classes in many respects ( LEVIN 1993). The classification is tentative and we expect it to be changed during the further processing of verbs. 105

6 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs After becoming acquainted with various models of valency descriptions and lexicographic treatment of valency of verbs, we have decided to follow German valency dictionary VALBU (2004) as our linguistic and lexicographical model. The printed dictionary, published in 2004, is compiled by Helmut SCHUMACHER, Jacqueline KUBCZAK, Renate SCHMIDT, and Vera DE RUITER. Its on-line variant is available at the web site of Institute of German Language in Manheim. On the one hand, early descriptions of valency of verbs in Croatian linguistics have been performed in German valency tradition and we wanted to follow this tradition in some respect. The first introduction of valency theory in the description of Croatian verbs started in the mid-eighties of the 20th century ( SAMARDŽIJA 1986) and the first, rather small, valency dictionary was published in 1993 (Rječnik valentnosti hrvatskih glagola (RVHG 1993). It consists of 50 verbs and has been published as a part of the proceedings of Institute of Linguistics of Faculty of Philosophy (University of Zagreb). 1 On the other hand, we assumed that the VALBU model is simple enough to unite linguists and lexicographers with different backgrounds, and to enable simple and fast processing of verbs. In respect of recent investigations of valency in Croatia, we have to mention two contributions. The first one is Krešimir ŠOJAT s doctoral thesis from 2008 which is a significant theoretical contribution to research into Croatian verb valency. The second contribution is an on-line valency lexicon CROVALLEX 2, published in the same year (2008). CROVALLEX, created by Nives MIKELIĆ PRERADOVIĆ, follows the Czech valency lexicon VALLEX. The lexicon has been revised and improved in CRO- VALLEX has set different goals from ours: the verb lemmas are selected according to different methods and the differentiation of verb senses does not correlate with ours. While the total number of lemmas is smaller, the differentiation of verb meanings is more complex in our database. CRO- VALLEX also lists idioms and collocations as part of verb meanings while we single out idioms and collocations in a separate unit, together with the morphology block and the semantic class of a verb. Finally, there is an ob- 1 The name of the proceedings was: Kontrastivna analiza engleskog i hrvatskog jezika (Svezak IV): Teorija valentnosti i rječnik valentnosti hrvatskih glagola. Zagreb: Zavod za lingvistiku / Contrastive analysis of English and Croatian: The Valence theory and the Valence Dictionary of Croatian Verbs. Zagreb Institute of Linguistics

7 Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod vious difference in background theories: while Mikelić Preradović follows the tradition of functional gene rative description, our model is based on the dependency theory. We draw our examples manually from two Croatian corpora: Croatian Language Repository and hrwac. The corpus examples are adapted, but mostly not invented. 4. The Valency Database of Croatian Verbs The Valency Database of Croatian Verbs is created as a three-level data entry. An illustration of TshwaneLex user interface is given in Figure 2. Figure 2. Illustration of the user interface in TshwaneLex application 4.1. The first level The first level consists of a verb lemma in infinitive form, except for inherent reflexive verbs, which are entered with the reflexive particle se self. Each lemma is connected with three blocks: a morphological block, a prototypical semantic class of a verb and a block for idioms and collocations. The morphological block encompasses the verb inflections (the first person singular present, the third person plural present, masculine perfect participle, feminine perfect participle, and masculine passive participle) and an aspect label. The aspect label includes abbreviations for imperfective, per- 107

8 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs fective, and biaspectual value. As said above, after the morphology block there is a semantic class to which the specific verb belongs. The idiom and collocation block comprises a collocation or an idiom (for example, mrziti iz dna duše, hate your guts, literally hate from the bottom of someone s soul ), its definition (jako mrziti koga ili što strongly hate someone ), and an example of usage (Ako idete na posao, mrzit ćete budilicu iz dna duše. If you go to work, you will strongly hate your alarm clock. ). The first level is illustrated in Figure 3. Figure 3. Illustration of the first level 4.2. The second level The second level consists of different verb senses that are introduced by numerated sublemmas (e.g. mrziti 1, mrziti 2). Each sublemma is connected with a reflexive label, a stylistic label (if different from neutral), a possibility of changing a verb semantic class, and a semantic definition. All reflexive verbs, other than refl exiva tantum, that is inherent reflexive verbs, are treated as sublemmas, i.e. as one of the senses of the verb. 3 The treatment of reflexive verbs in valency models is a much-discussed question. In this respect, we depart from German model that treats every reflexive verb as a separate lemma regardless of a correlated non-reflexive verb. 4 The Czech valency dictionary VALLEX treats refl exiva tantum and derived reflexive verbs differently from other occurrences of reflexive verbs ( KETTNEROVÁ 3 As the authors of VALLEX have pointed out (p.c.), the possibility of a verb to have a reflexive variant, i. e. some types of reflexivization (except for inherent reflexive verbs) can be seen (and it is often considered) as a syntactic operation. In this vein, it is not theoretically justified to introduce a reflexive verb as one of the meanings of the verb. Moreover, some other phenomena (as for example pro-drop) were considered as syntactic properties in our approach. 4 Im Gegensatz zu den meisten Wörterbüchern werden in VALBU Verben als verschieden betrachtet, wenn sie sich im Verbalkomplex unterschieden, auch wenn das Verballexem gleich ist. Daraus folgt, dass ein unpersönliches Verb oder ein Reflexivverb getrennt von ihrem homonymen persönlichen Verb lemmatisiert werden. (VALBU 2004, p. 21) 108

9 Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod L OPATKOVÁ 2014). 5 The semantic definition of a verb sublemma includes a paraphrase and a synonym. An illustration of the second level processing of a verb vrijeđati introducing separate sublemmas for particular meanings is given in Figure 4. The non-reflexive variant vrijeđati means to offend (1) or to injure (2) and the reflexive variant (vrijeđati se) means to be offended (3) or has a reciprocal meaning offend each other (4). 6 Figure 4. Illustration of the second level 4.3. The third level After the definition has been written in, we enter the third level that contains a valency analysis. The valency analysis consists of linking a part of a sentence example with a valency complement. Each meaning / sense can be associated with several valency patterns and each valency pattern can be linked to several examples. We obviously assume that valency can be defined at the meaning level, not at the level of different verbs. The valency pattern is associated with a label that indicates non-standard use and with a constraint section. In the constraint section, morphosyntactic and other constraints of specific verb complements are recorded (there we, for exam- 5 KETTNEROVÁ and LOPATKOVÁ have described in detail how reflexivity is captured in two ways in VALLEX: refl exiva tantum verbs and derived reflexives are stored as separate lemmas in the data component of the lexicon, but ability of verbs to be used in a reflexive, reciprocal constructions or to undergo deagentive and dispositional diathesis is marked by special attributes in the data component. Formal rules for these processes are stored in the grammar component. 6 A proposal of treatment of reflexive verbs in a Croatian valency dictionary was given in (ORAIĆ 2008). 109

10 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs ple, note that the accusative complement of the verb sabrati to gather has to be restricted to plural or collective nominal phrase). The valency analysis contains a morphological, a syntactic, and a semantic description. This is illustrated in Figure 5. that gives the complete processing of the verb bojati se to fear. In this illustration, you can see the sentence examples that are introduced by a diamond sign. The part of an example, written below, is connected with hyphen with syntactic, morphological, and semantic description (semantic description is in the square brackets). The syntactic analysis follows the system of complement classes introduced in VALBU (2004) with some adjustments that logically result from Croatian syntax. Similar to this and other cognate models, we also assume the existence of obligatory and optional complements and adjuncts (obligatorische, fakultative Ergänzungen and Angaben). Only obligatory and optional complements are part of a valency pattern. We have suggested that Croatian valency patterns can be analyzed by ten classes of complements (1): (1) Complement classes 1) Nominative Complement 2) Genitive Complement 3) Dative Complement 4) Accusative Complement 5) Instrumental Complement 6) Prepositional Complement 7) Adverbial Complement 8) Predicative Complement 9) Infinitive Complement 10) Sentential Complement VALBU (2004) assumes that eight classes of complements are required for description of German valency patterns (Nominative Complement, Genitive Complement, Dative Complement, Accusative Complement, Prepositional Complement, Adverbial Complement, Predicative Complement, and Verbal Complement (Verbativergänzung)). As far as Croatian is concerned, we assume that the Nominative Complement mainly includes subjects. There is a class of verbs that are considered avalent since they do not have any complement. These are for example grmiti thunder, sijevati it is lightening, flash, kišiti rain, as is the case in many other Indo-European languages. There are also verbs that require one or more complements, neither of which is in nominative case e.g. vrtiti 110

11 Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod se when it means feeling dizzy requires only an obligatory dative complement, and possibly a non-obligatory prepositional complement (Vrti mi se (u glavi) I am dizzy (in my head) ). We assume that all finite sentences have Nominative Complements in Croatian regardless of the possibility of pronominal subjects to be dropped in the first and the second person, which is a characteristic feature of some Slavic and other languages. The Genitive Complement mostly includes genitive objects. The genitive of negation (so called Slavic genitive) and the partitive genitive are considered to be a reali zation of accusative complements. The Dative Complement covers many groups of dative nominals (e.g. logical subject in dative, dative of predication, dative of equality, directive dative and so on), some of them belong to the obligatory Dative Complement, some to the optional one. The Accusative Complement covers mostly the accusative object. Contrary to VALBU (2004), we treat cognate objects as part of the Accusative Complement. The Instrumental Complement includes mostly instrumental objects, 7 and the Prepositional Complement mostly prepositional objects. The Adverbial Complement can have various morphological realizations, ranging from simple adverbials to complex adverbial phrases, prepositional phrases and nominals in the instrumental case. 8 The Predicative Complement is motivated by the German model. This complement includes nominals and adjectives in nominative, instrumental and accusative case, kao-constructions ( as constructions) in predicative use and as a part of secondary predications. In VALBU (2004), Verbal Complement (Verbativergänzung) includes infinitives and sentences as complements of a verb. However, only those sentences that are not a realization of the case complements are considered a part of the Verbal Complement. The sentences that can emerge instead of a case-marked noun are not considered Verbal Complements. Our model treats all complement clauses as a uniform group belonging to Sentential Complement. After we have briefly described all complement classes, we have to finally remark that we still regard these syntactic classes as somehow tentative since we have started the first valency descriptions quite recently. It may be that we will have to change our syntactic model 7 Other instrumental nominals can also belong to Adverbial Complement and Predicate Complement. 8 So in such cases, we have a justification for separating the morphological description from the syntactic one. The same is true of genitive of negation and partitive genitive. 111

12 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs after processing some substantial amount of verbs, maybe not the number of classes but their content, what they can or cannot include. After the syntactic complements are extracted and described, the morphological realization is assigned to each complement. Although the valency dictionaries differ in respect of introducing the morphological layer, we decided to add morphology to our description in order to make the dictionary more accessible for foreigners. The morphology description encompasses all morphological categories that can be realizations of syntactic classes of complements. It subdivides into four parts (2): (2) Morphological realizations 1) Prepositions and Prepositional phrases 2) Cases 3) Sentential realizations, i.e. types of conjunctions and interrogative adverbs and pronouns 4) Other The first part, Prepositions and Prepositional phrases, consists of a finite list of all prepositions and prepositional phrases in Croatian. The second part Cases includes all Croatian cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, instrumental) apart from the vocative case, which is never a complement of a verb. 9 Theoretically, it should not include the loca tive case either since the locative case never occurs outside prepositional phrases. However, for entering a prepositional phrase in our interface, a selection of a preposition and a case form from a dropdown menu is required. Sentential realizations are conjunctions da, što, kako, gdje, li, neka, kao, 10 interrogative pronouns and adverbs, a label for quotation and zero (0), which is a sign for complement clauses without conjunctions. The part Other comprises adverbs and adverbial phrases, the infinitive, the kaophrase, the quantifier phrase, and adjectives. The morphological description is followed by the semantic description that is designed in accordance with the VALBU (2004) model as well. The semantic description is conducted in two layers. The first layer consists of a verb-specific description of a participant and the second layer of an as- 9 At least not in contemporary language. 10 Da, što, kako and gdje can all be translated as that in English. Li is a question particle, neka is a conjunction that introduces a clause after an imperative sentences and kao can be translated as as. Note that što, kako and gdje are also interrogative words and serve to introduce wh-clauses. 112

13 Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod signment of a semantic category to a specific complement. 11 The descriptive verb-specific definition of a participant is based on a definition of a verb sense and it has to contain the same semantic parts as the definition of the specific meaning. For example, the nominative complement of the verb brinuti se (o kome) take care, worry (of / about somebody) is described as onaj koji je u brizi ili zabrinut one who is in concern or worried, and the prepositional complement as onaj ili ono zbog čega je tko u brizi ili zabrinut somebody or something, about whom or what is somebody in concern or worried. The second layer is a semantic description using semantic categories. Firstly, the lexicographer has to make a choice between two sections in the menu (Semantic categories and Without restrictions). We assume that there are complements that semantic categories need not to be determined for, or differently said that semantic restrictions are not imposed on, and the ones that are semantically restricted. In a sentence Ova haljina mi se sviđa. 12 I like this dress., for example, the nominative complement (ova haljina this dress ) is not semantically restricted whereas the dative complement mi to me (dat) is restricted to person and, rarely to all animates, in its usual use. After the section Semantic categories has been chosen, a list of 32 semantic categories appears. The list is also compiled in accordance with VALBU (2004). Some of the semantic categories are animate, person, institution, concrete, abstract, action, state, plant, liquid, mental achievement. However, they are not organized hierarchically, which is another point that we have to reconsider in-depth. If the semantic category of the defined complement can refer to some narrow set of entities, we try to illustrate this fact by separate examples (e.g. if a complement can refer to a person and an institution, it will be illustrated by two sentence examples). If the complement can refer to some broader set of entities, e.g. all concrete entities, only one example is entered. We also separated semantic categories of adverbials from the other semantic categories. Temporarily, there is a list of seven semantic categories of adverbials (place, time, instrument, manner, cause, purpose, quantity / dimension / volume), but it is likely that this list will have to be enlarged and divided into subgroups. 11 A similar kind of verb-specific description is also provided by VDE (2004) and some similar features can be recognized in Frament s descriptions of participants ( HERBST 2007, 25 26). 12 Ova haljina mi se sviđa. this dress-nom me-dative se-refl. particle like-3.sg. 113

14 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs In the figurative use of verbs, complements can be realized by unusual and unexpected semantic categories, which we do not record. Some of the very usual and broadly accepted figurative uses are, nevertheless, recorded among our verb meanings and are designated with abbreviation pren. from preneseno figuratively. 13 After the lexicographer has extracted the part of an example and has assigned the syntactic, morphological and semantic description to it, the complete valency pattern in the form of a short formula is again reentered next to the sublemma. At the end of the verb entry, there is a part named Remarks where all observations that cannot be otherwise explained are recorded (for example, a frequent usage of a specific verb without an obligatory complement or a frequent co-occurence of two complements). Figure 5. The processing of the verb bojati se fear 13 In VALBU (2004), such cases are marked as [indirekt.] for indirekte Charakterisierung. 114

15 Matea Birtić Bruno Nahod 5. Comparasion with other models If we compare our model to the German model, three conceptual differences emerge: the treatment of reflexive verbs, the introduction of prototypical and other verb semantic class, and the addition of the morphological description of complements. Compared to VALLEX, our system differs in the treatment of aspectual pairs, partly in the description of reflexive verbs, and presumably in the treatment of idiomatic and collocational usage of verbs. We enter both the perfective and the imperfective verb as a separate lemma, 14 whereas VALLEX treats them as belonging to the same lemma ( ŽABOKRTSKÝ LOPATKOVÁ 2007). In spite of following VALLEX in many respects, the other Croatian database, CROVALLEX also treats imperfective and perfective verbs as separate lemmas. Contrary to the differences, our Valency Database shares some common features both with CRO VALLEX and VALLEX in introducing the semantic classification of verbs and in identifying valency complements on the level of the particular meaning. In the latter characteristic, VDE (2004) model is alike. 6. Conclusion, contemporary state, and future goals Until today we have processed 53 verbs that belong primarily to the class of psychological verbs and their 168 sublemmas (senses). Of course, not all of these 168 sublemmas belong to the class of psychological verbs. Some verbs with basic or prototypical psychological meaning belong also to other semantic classes (verbs of communication, verbs of taking care). We have chosen this class of verbs as a pilot class to test how our database functions since we considered this verb class to be semantically rather homogeneous, with rare changing of the verb semantic class, and with relatively simple syntactic patterns. But we have already encountered some problems: it is difficult to determine for some psychological reflexive verbs if their second complement is obligatory or optional. 15 We have singled out 48 sentence patterns among these classes of verbs so far. Our final goal for this stage of the project is to present our results in a form of a searchable electronic dictionary that will be available 14 We have introduced separate treatment of perfective and imperfective verbs, because we have noticed that the perfective and imperfective verbs can in rare cases differ in number of senses and in correlated complement structure. 15 For example for bojati se fear and čuditi se wonder, we think that both complements are obligatory (only one meaning), but for dosađivati se to be bored we determined only the first one (nominative complement) to be obligatory. 115

16 An Outline of the On-line Valency Dictionary of Croatian Verbs at The dictionary will feature both simple (by verb) and advanced querying (by complements, by morphological realization). The main purpose of this paper was to present the technical, lexicographical, and linguistic properties of The Valency Database of Croatian verbs, which is still a project in progress. Therefore is very likely that some aspects of the valency database will be changed during the time. 116

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